CAS PS 101 General Psychology Summer 1 2024 Module Content Module 1 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 1: Introduction and Methods in Psychology Tuesday, May 14 – Sunday, May 19 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 1–2 & Appendix (Pages 1-6; 29-59; 581-604) Review APA (American Psychological Association) Ethical Principles (page 1–middle of page 4; section 8–8.09 (middle of page 10–page 11) [Available via apa.org and the Course eReserves.] Module 1 online content Discussions: Discussion 0: Introduce Yourselves Module 1 Discussion: Initial responses due Thursday, May 16, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, May 19, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, May 21, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: None Assessments: Syllabus Quiz due Thursday, May 16, 5:00 PM ET Live Classrooms (Faculty): There is no Live Classroom this Unit Activity: Complete Module 1 Review and Reflect, due Monday, May 20, 11:59 PM ET Module 1A: A Model for Understanding Psychology Learning Objectives By the end of the session students will be able to: Describe a multi-level framework for considering phenomenon in the field of psychology and give an example. Describe types of studies in psychology and outline their uses, strengths, and weaknesses. Describe the difference between correlational (non-experimental) and experimental psychological research and gives examples of each. Describe the research process – from idea to peer review. Describe the three principles governing research ethics. Give examples of each. Introduction to the Model for Understanding Psychology Remember back to the course introductory video that was on the course home page, and see if you can respond to the question below. What do you think of when you hear the word “psychology”? cartoon style cat lying on a couch next to a psychiatrist I always like this cartoon, as I think it represents a common perception of psychology—a therapeutic endeavor where we seek to understand how early experiences caused folks to have problems (often, how it’s all your parents’ fault!!). Although humorous, it’s a pretty poor idea of what psychology is. Instead, psychology covers many things, but, at its heart, it is a science of behavior. It shares many principles with other sciences. Psychological science can be basic—when we try to understand how and why individuals behave the way they do. This is really knowledge for the sake of knowledge, and that’s important. For example, we might want to understand how human memory works, what factors are associated with healthy child development, how individuals develop anxiety problems. Psychological science can also be applied—when we try to use that basic knowledge to change (hopefully improve) human behavior. For example, we may want to use what we know about human memory to improve student performance; we may want to use what we know about healthy child development to improve early childhood education or parenting; we may want to use what we know about how anxiety develops to better treat and prevent problems with anxiety. One of the things that makes psychology so challenging as a field is its tremendous breadth. Psychologists are interested in how the brain works, how social situations impact individual performance, how early experiences influence the later development of mental health problems, and lots more. The sheer range of potential questions is overwhelming. This is what can be referred to as the CONTENT (what we know). This also means that we have a broad range of strategies and methods that are part of psychological research. This is what can be referred to as the PROCESS (how we come to know it). Throughout this course we will focus on some of these strategies and methods. But we need to start with a framework—a framework for thinking about complex problems in psychology. The model that you see below is an old but still influential one—Uri Bronfenbrenner published this model in 1979. What does it show? It illustrates how we have to consider the individual in context. In his model the individual is in the middle, and they are embedded within other systems. The family, schools, neighborhoods, political systems, social structures all surround this individual. Now Bronfenbrenner, as a sociologist, was really most interested in these larger systems. Bronfenbrenner Model of Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner Model of Ecological Systems TheorySource: Adapted from Hchokr at English Wikipedia As psychologists, our focus is on the individual. Still, we must think of this individual in context. So, in next illustration, I include an adaptation of this model that focuses on individual functioning—this will be our framework throughout the semester. Each of these circles is a “level of analysis”; to understand complex ideas in psychology we often need to understand them at each of these levels: Examples of the Model for Understanding Psychology I’d like to illustrate how we can think about complex topics in psychology using this kind of general framework. So, I’m going to use two topics to illustrate: youth aggression and anorexia nervosa. Let’s talk about youth aggression We need a little background. Aggression is a common problem. What’s the time of life when we experience the highest level of individual aggression? Many of you probably guessed the teenage years, but actually it’s those toddler years! Toddlers are cute, but they can kick, hit, thrown things, bite! Thank goodness it gets better pretty quickly . . ., and they are small enough that the adults around can typically manage it. Aggression in teens can lead to many problems, like delinquency and criminal incarceration. The age when a youth begins to show significant aggression begins is often important in predicting future aggressive behavior. Kids who have high levels of early aggressive behavior (elementary school and younger) seem to be a different, and potentially more worrisome group, than those who have high levels of aggressive behavior beginning in the teen years (which is usually more short-term and associated with peer influences). We can also define aggression in various ways—physical, verbal, and/or relational. Physical aggression is pretty clear—hitting or assaulting others are examples. In verbal aggression we insult, demean or threaten others. In relational aggression, relationships are manipulated—isolating, shunning, spreading rumors, destroying reputations. Aggression can take place in person or online; indeed, online or cyberaggression is associated with negative health impacts on youth victims. So, let’s use our framework to understand youth aggression: biological level 1. The biological level Wow, we could consider many things, and here are just three. First, human aggression, and that of many other mammals, is generally higher in males then females, particularly after puberty. Second, we also know that the male sex hormone testosterone is associated with higher aggression. Administration of testosterone in mice leads to increases in aggression. Third, we also know that levels of serotonin—a neurotransmitter in the brain—can be associated with higher aggression. So we know the biological level is important. psychological level 2. The psychological level. Let’s back up a little. Those who study youth aggression distinguish between two additional types: Reactive and Proactive. Reactive aggression what you might imagine—folks who are being attacked often respond in kind. When one child hits another child and the second child hits back, that second child is engaging in reactive aggression. You think someone has insulted you, maybe you insult back. Reactive aggression is emotional and is in retaliation to perceived slights or aggression from another individual. Proactive aggression, also called instrumental aggression, is when an individual uses aggression to get something they want or achieve some other end. Proactive aggression is goal oriented. When a child twists another child’s arm behind their back to force them to give up their lunch money—that’s proactive aggression. Which one seems a little more concerning to you? (I hope you said proactive). Although, proactive aggression is also used in war situations and in some sports situations—understandable. We know that the psychological processes involved in these two types of aggression are different. Individuals who are prone to reactive aggression often have heightened “threat perception”—they expect others to be aggressive toward them. You could say “their antennae” are up; they expect to be attacked (physically, verbally, or relationally), and sometimes when we expect to see something we see it even if it’s not there! Let’s say you have a line of 3rd graders all jostling to see something and one child bumps into another. The child that gets bumped can think “that child bumped me because they got bumped by another classmate” or “that child bumped me by mistake” or “that child bumped me on purpose”. The child who makes that last assumption—the “on purpose” assumption—is more likely to respond with reactive aggression —maybe bumping or hitting the other child back in response. The situation is different for proactive aggression. Remember in proactive aggression, the perpetrator uses aggression to get something. Research has demonstrated that children who tend to use proactive aggression evaluate problem solutions a little differently than children who don’t tend to use proactive aggression. In one study children were all presented problems and potential solutions. Proactively aggressive kids tended to evaluate aggressive solutions more favorably than non-aggressive kids. So proactive aggression seems to be a strategy. This distinction between reactive and proactive aggression also applies to individuals who engage in domestic violence or intimate-partner abuse. In domestic violence an intimate partner, say a husband, is aggressive toward the other intimate partner, say his wife. Some spouses do this because they feel they are being “attacked”, insulted, or demeaned by their spouse and respond with aggression. In this case they are engaging in reactive aggression. For others, they use aggression to get what they want in the relationship—bullying or abusing their partner. These folks are engaging in proactive aggression. This is not to say that one type of aggression is “better”; but by understanding the psychological level we can understand more about how and why aggression occurs. Maybe, we can also be more effective in STOPPING aggression. basic social interactions 3. The family level We know that individuals develop their thought processes and emotions within the context of close relationships. Interestingly, aggression tends to run in families. Children who are raised in physically abusive families are more likely than those raised in non-abusive families to go on to either be abusive or be in abusive relationships. You could say that we learn aggression at our parents’ knees. One way this happens is through modeling—we see how our parents solve problems and go on to solve problems in a similar fashion, and sometimes that’s an abusive fashion. Another way this happens is through shaping our expectations—we may learn to expect to be attacked or demeaned, or we may learn at home that aggression can work for us. That is to say, these experiences at the family level shape the psychological level. Finally, we know that parental monitoring is important—high aggression and other delinquent behaviors are less likely when parents know what their kids are up to. We hear a lot about “helicopter parenting” these days (when parents are overly involved), but lack of parental involvement can be a real problem too! Family involvement and parental monitoring are important. larger social group level 4. The larger group level Some groups consider aggression to be a valid way to solve problems. Think about the mafia or violent street gangs. In this groups violence is seen as a legitimate way to solve problems and get one’s needs met. This larger group level of analysis can impact the psychological level—when your group says it is ok you begin to believe that as well. Of course, the larger group level can also impact the family level by influencing the ways in which parents relate to their children and model behavior. A particularly interesting line of research has examined “deviancy training” among young delinquent men, where they reinforce and “one up” one another for their aggressive behavior. You can also see this happening for sexual aggression—with one young man boasting about his sexual conquests, leading to more and more outlandish boasts and “legitimizing” more egregious, harassing, aggressive (and possibly illegal) behavior. culturl level 5. The cultural level In some cultures, violence is more normative than in other cultures. If you look at violent crime rates you see startling differences across countries. Indeed, some cultures glorify violence and aggression. In the USA we frequently see movies where violent solutions are dramatized, heroes use violence to solve problems, and athletic events glorify aggression. We believe in “letting him [our adversary] know who is the boss”—dominance is a big deal in American culture. Other cultures emphasize getting along, playing your role in the larger, very highly valued group. An interesting example of a powerful cultural factor impacting aggression is what is known as a “Culture of Honor”. In this system men (almost always men) feel that threats to their honor or reputation (i.e, culturally unacceptable behavior of a family member, insults, threats, etc) must be answered with violence to re-establish that honor or reputation. For example, in some cultures female chastity is highly valued, and a woman having sexual relations outside of marriage (whether consensual or not) is a stain on the family’s honor. In this cultural framework, killing one’s own female family member may be considered appropriate aggression to restore the family’s honor. Indeed, there are important cultural factors that impact aggression. Another example What do you know about anorexia nervosa? Anorexia nervosa is a mental health problem that impacts about 0.6% of individuals. Symptoms include self-starvation, severe weight loss and low body weight. It tends to emerge during the teenage years and to predominantly impact young women. Although not the most prevalent mental health disorder, Anorexia Nervosa has the highest mortality rate of any mental health problem—about 20% of those with a diagnosis die as a result of it. Even when not fatal, it can have terrible consequences. It’s been said that it impacts the “three B’s"— bones, brains, and babies. Let’s focus on bones. Bones When young people are teenagers their bones are growing and strengthening, with calcium increasing bone health. Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa aren’t taking in enough calcium and may end up with brittle bones—osteoporosis can emerge very early in individuals with a history of Anorexia Nervosa. Brains Young people are also undergoing tremendous growth in their brains, and fat in the diet is important in this process, as it promotes myelination of axons in the cells of the brain. We will talk more about this process when we learn about the brain. If individuals do not have enough fat in their diets, brain development may not be optimal. Babies In order for young women to menstruate, they have to have a certain percentage of body fat. One common complication of Anorexia Nervosa is a lack of menstruation or what we call amenorrhea; this can have a long-term impact on young women’s fertility. Overall, AN can have long-term health impacts even when it gets better or resolves. So how can we use our model to understand Anorexia Nervosa? Again, the framework: biological level 1. The biological level The hypothalamus is a small region deep within the brain that controls some aspects of our physical functioning and our behavior. Experiments with rats demonstrate that damaging a certain part of the hypothalamus can lead to a rat overeating to a point of severe obesity—an enormous rat! Damaging a different part of the hypothalamus gives you a rat that starves itself. The hypothalamus seems to be very important in the control of eating behavior. Studies using brain scanning (MRI) suggest that other areas of the brain may be involved as well, including the dorsolateral prefrontal context, parietal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus. You won’t need to know the particular regions, but I do want you to recognize that this level of analysis (biological level) is important. psychological level 2. The psychological level Self-Perceptions are crucial as well. One thing we’ve learned is that people with anorexia nervosa tend to see themselves, not as they are, but in a distorted way. You and I may look at the person and think “what an extremely thin person!” whereas they may look in the mirror and think “I’m still so heavy!” They may focus on one part of the body that seems like a problem to them— a thigh perhaps—and focus almost exclusively on that. Personality plays a role too. Several personality characteristics may predispose someone to develop AN, particularly perfectionism. Individuals who are perfectionistic have very high standards for themselves and little room for mistakes or errors. Internalization of a thin ideal—when folks have thoroughly accepted the idea that thin is beautiful – also places a person at increased risk for developing anorexia nervosa. Understanding this psychological level has really helped in the development of better treatments for anorexia nervosa. basic social interactions 3. The family level Although not always, anorexia nervosa seems to happen more in families where parents have very high expectations for success—this is a disorder that is more common in higher socio-economic groups. Also, anorexia appears to occur more when parents emphasize appearance as an important value—perhaps this is where the internalization of the thin ideal begins. Again, this level of analysis impacts other levels, including the psychological level. larger social group level 4. The larger group level Certain groups are more likely to develop anorexia nervosa. In general, rates of anorexia nervosa are higher in groups where appearance (and especially a thin appearance is valued)—models, dancers, gymnasts. Gay men appear more likely than non-gay men to develop eating disorders. Group values about appearance and its importance may be internalized into one’s own value system—part of the psychological level. Again, one level can shape others. culturl level 5. The cultural level In our culture, appearance is something that is more highly valued in women (as compared to men), and youthful appearance (especially for women) is particularly valued. We see this in the media all the time. As an interesting case study and an example of the importance of cultural factors, rates of eating disorders like anorexia nervosa were exceedingly rare in Fiji prior to 1995, and behavior like self-induced vomiting and binge eating were low. When researchers returned in 1998 following the introduction of Western television shows, they found greatly increased rates of these behaviors in a sample of girls, and the majority considered themselves “too fat”. This speaks to the important role of media in shaping self-perceptions and potentially risk of eating disorders like anorexia nervosa. These cultural variables also impact parenting. So the levels of analysis interact with one another—one influencing the other. Important Considerations about Culture Psychology has been criticized for NOT considering culture adequately. Many of the studies that are conducted do not represent the broader population. Indeed, psychology (among other disciplines) tends to focus on what are known as WEIRD populations—Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. Thus, it is challenging to generalize to different populations. In the United States of America, research has tended to focus on White middle- and upper-class populations; lower-income and people of color are not well-represented in our research studies. There has been more effort made in recent years to include more diverse populations in research AND to consider their perspectives and needs. We have a long way to go as a discipline in this regard. Module 1A Summary To summarize, I’ve presented a model today in which complex psychological phenomenon must be understood at a variety of levels. I’ve also provided several examples. In your opinion, what is the best level at which to understand psychological phenomena? What’s the right level of analysis? Well, I would say that it depends on your goals. Give this some thought before you show the answer. Let’s say you want to develop a program to reduce bullying in elementary schools. You want to figure out what factors influence school bullying. Which is the best level? a. Biological b. Psychological c. Basic Social Interactions d. Larger Social Group e. Culture Show Answer Let’s say you want to develop a program to help students to develop better study habits. You need to understand how study strategies influence memory for course material. Which is the best level? a. Biological b. Psychological c. Basic Social Interactions d. Larger Social Group e. Culture Show Answer Do You Remember? See what you can remember from the previous material by matching the terms to their definitions. Module 1B: Methods in Psychology The science of psychology relies on research to uncover knowledge. This portion of the module will focus on the methods of research used in psychology, but we will also return to this important topic throughout the course. Let’s focus on some basic strategies or designs. 1. Naturalistic Observation One can systematically observe the real world. You can learn a whole lot by systematically observing the real world. Perhaps some of you know who Jane Goodall is. She studied chimpanzees in Africa, and by observing their behavior in the real world, she learned a lot that has guided our understanding of primates. Naturalistic observation has been used in psychology to help us form theories and develop hypotheses for future research. As another example, let’s say I want to understand more about factors impacting children’s aggression. I could observe them on playgrounds and carefully track all their aggressive behavior—hitting, kicking, spitting, name calling, all that. I could observe and deduce the situations that tend to lead to this behavior, the characteristics of those individuals who were aggressive, and the consequences of their actions. I can learn a great deal from this careful naturalistic observation. Advantages Disadvantages Best Used It’s real life Observer bias! The fact that someone is watching can change behavior. For example, do you think that children may behave differently when they know they’re being observed? It’s also hard to control the many variables that are there as well Naturalistic observation is often best used when first learning about a particular phenomenon and we need to develop hypotheses. For example, this method led to much greater understanding of child development and enabled us to conduct more specific research. 2. Case Study Here we chose one specific case and study it in depth. It could be a particular individual, or it could be a classroom or work setting or another “case”. Perhaps I want to learn more about geniuses—maybe I could do a case study of the late, great astrophysicist Stephen Hawking. If I want to learn how to best teach English as a second language, I could find a very successful classroom where children learn very effectively and quickly become fluent in English. This would be a case study of a specific instance (of language learning) or situation. The case study has a long and storied history in psychology, and we’ve learned much through this approach. For example, by looking at individuals with very specific, unusual brain injuries, we’ve learned a lot about how the brain works. Advantages Disadvantages Best Used We can measure many things, study in depth, collect lots of data about our particular case. This is a major advantage of the case study to be able to look at things in depth Maybe it doesn’t generalize! How do we know if it is typical of others or unique to that situation? The best use of case studies is often for unusual and hard to study phenomenon. There are case studies out there that have looked at the impact of very severe child abuse on language and emotional development. The impact of this abuse was, of course, documented after the abuse was discovered and stopped. These cases have taught us important things about development. These cases are horrible, thankfully uncommon (although even one case is too common), and certainly not something we can (or would want) to study in more controlled ways. On the other hand, what if we wanted to study the impact of dyslexia (a reading disability) on students’ emotional adjustment? Dyslexia is not rare and not difficult to study; a case study would be a poor choice here. We would probably be better off identifying a larger sample of kids with dyslexia and follow them over time. 3. Survey We can ask questions of large groups of participants. Examples include the US Census or the Monitoring the Future Survey, which has been used since 1975 to examine teens’ behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes. Advantages Disadvantages Best Used We can collect LOTS of information and examine relationships within that data. For example, maybe we want to look at how religious affiliation is related to particular attitudes. We always have to be careful about response bias! Not everyone responds to a survey, and we want to make sure that our sample is representative! How many of you have gotten surveys in the mail and not completed them? Maybe some people are more likely to respond to surveys than others. So are our survey results really representative? When you are trying to evaluate the validity of survey results you always want to look at the rate of response. If only 20% of folks who were surveyed responded, can you really trust it? Also, we have to rely on folks' honesty in responding to questions, and for some things (like questions about sexual activity or drug use) this may not be something we can rely on. So we have to be careful about how we rely on surveys. Surveys are best used in situations where the research wants to gather information on characteristics, attitudes, opinion or experiences of a large population of people. For example, surveys are often used to learn about people's religious affiliations, political ideas, or health behaviors. Correlational vs. Experimental Research In our field we need to make an important distinction between correlational and experimental studies. What is a Correlational Study? Here I collect data and look at associations between variables. This can be a terrific way to do research, but it has its limitations. Let’s start with an example. I want to study the impact of exposure to aggressive video games on kids' aggressive behavior. For the purposes of discussion, let’s say I want to conduct my study among 3rd graders. Even within a correlational study design, I can do this in a variety of ways. One way I could do it is to use a survey of parents to determine how much time kids spend on which video games; better yet, maybe I could install an app on their computers and phones that will track their videogame time and activity—that would be a good way, eh? (Of course, we would need parental permission and child assent, because, after all, we need to be ethical in our research.) I could then also collect data on aggressive behavior, using observation and/or getting parent and teacher reports. I then analyze my data and, lo and behold, I find that they are related. More exposure to violent/aggressive video games is associated with more aggressive behavior. Can I conclude that exposure to violent video games caused the 3rd graders to be more aggressive? If you said “no”, congratulations you are correct! It could be that the causal direction goes the other way, maybe more aggressive kids seek out more aggressive video games. It could also be a totally different thing that causes both—something we call the "third variable". Maybe parents who don’t monitor their kids as much as they should end up with both more aggressive kids and kids who play more violent video games; maybe parents who have more permissive attitudes, or even positive attitudes toward aggression, have kids who both play more violent video games and engage in more aggressive behavior. There are lots of potential causes here. The important point is that we can’t determine it—a correlational study cannot tell me be about causality. Remember, Correlation doesn't equal causation What is an experimental study? Say I want to actually determine causation. Well, now I need an experimental study. Remember my topic is the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggressive behavior. To do an experimental study I will need to assign participants to particular conditions. The key things here are: experimental control. I “manipulate” the independent variable, which in this case is exposure to violent videogames. random assignment to conditions. Half of my sample of kids get assigned to the “violent” videogame condition, half get assigned to the “non-violent” videogames condition, and assignment is by chance (that is, random; you can use the “flip of a coin” to decide who gets assigned to each condition). Let’s say I am going to assign 100 3rd graders to one of two conditions that I, as the experimenter, have preselected. Fifty of the third graders will be assigned to play two hours a day of a non-violent video game, maybe something boring like Tetris. The other 50 of my third graders will be assigned a violent video game, let’s say Grand Theft Auto—hardly a game appropriate for third graders. Still, I’m the experimenter and I’m deciding what my study will be. Obviously parents have to consent to have their children participate in the study. So the kids play these games for two hours a day for one month, and then I evaluate their aggressive behavior. Like before, I might evaluate it using teacher reports, parent reports, and a behavioral observation. If I find at the end of my study that those who play the violent video game, Grand Theft Auto, show more aggressive behavior during the observations and their parents and teachers report more aggressive behavior, I can say that my study shows that exposure to these violent video games can cause youth to show more aggression. In this kind of EXPERIMENTAL study, I can speak about causation. This is not to say that I’ve explained all the reasons that youth can show aggressive behavior, and there may be some youth in my study who show more aggressive behavior than others, but I can say that exposure to the violent video game caused them to show greater increases in aggressive behavior then did exposure to a non-violent video game. What's the difference between the two kinds of studies? The big difference between correlational and experimental research is experimenter control. In the first instance I have just measured behavior and looked at its association with other behavior. In the second instance I have control as an experimenter over the experimental conditions, and I randomly assign participants to these conditions. By using random assignment, I can control for differences naturally occurring in my participants. That is to say some of my kids may be high in aggression naturally, but by using random assignment I maximize the likelihood that some of those children will be in each of my violence exposure groups. It’s not whether I use sophisticated technology or techniques that makes research experimental; rather, it is experimenter control. What Do We Study? In conducting research in psychology, we are often interested in the big ideas out there. These are called constructs—things like altruism, empathy, self-interest, intelligence. These are big ideas and not always easy to measure. We need to pick measures that really “get at” what it is we want to study. More specific than the constructs are the variables we use in a particular study; to operationalize (or include operational definitions) is to define our variables for the purpose of a particular study. Constructs and Variables So, going back to something I discussed earlier. Say I want to understand more about youth aggression and how it comes about. Aggression is the construct I’m interested in. So how do I measure this? What variables do I use? Do I use self-report? Do you think youth or their parents might not disclose everything? Most of us want to look good and might alter our reports to look good—also known as the social desirability bias. We might do the same for our kids. Do you think teachers always know who the aggressive kids are? On the one hand, teachers see a lot of kids, so they are pretty good at knowing who is and isn’t extreme in some way. On the other hand, some of the most aggressive kids might be pretty good at hiding it from teachers, possibly limiting it to when teachers are not looking. None of these methods of measuring is foolproof. For my study, I’m going to include the following variables (with operational definitions in parentheses): youth self-reports (Youth Self Report Form), parent report and teacher reports (Child Behavior Checklist), and peer impressions (Peer Nominations). One of the things I’m careful to do here is to use standardized measures that have been shown to work well in past research and to include reports from a variety of sources (kids, parents, teachers)—none of which is perfect by itself. I could also design a task where youth can choose between potential problem solutions and add up their aggression scores, with more aggressive solutions scored higher. As you can see, there are number of ways to operationalize our aggression variables; some are better than others, and none is perfect. Who Do We Study? Populations and Samples We also need to carefully consider who we want to study—what is our population? In the study we previously discussed looking at youth aggression and exposure to violent video games, the population of interest was all children in the 3rd grade. After all, maybe I’d like to be able to use my research to develop programs to intervene with 3rd graders to reduce aggression. Let’s think of another example. Let’s say, I want to develop methods for helping people with Type 1 diabetes more effectively manage their medical condition. The population here would be all people with Type I diabetes. When I finish my research, I’d like to be able to generalize my findings to the population of people with Type I diabetes. Now I can’t study everyone in that population, so I need to select a sample of that population—a smaller number of people that I can study. I want my sample to be a good representation of the population. The best sample is one that’s randomly selected. Pretend it’s like a lottery: I have the name of every person in the USA with Type I diabetes and I can randomly select 100 of them for my study. That would be amazing—too bad it’s totally unrealistic—there is not such list and how would I, practically, be able to study people from all 50 states? (I’d need a big travel budget) So I need to find another way. Let’s say then that in order to find people with Type I Diabetes I try to get referrals for all patients who were hospitalized for diabetes complications in the last year at Joslin Diabetes Center here in Boston. 1. Is this a good strategy? a. Yes b. No Show Answer Here's a better idea. What if I work for a health maintenance organization? I can go into the records of all the hundreds of thousands of members and identify all those who are taking medications commonly prescribed for Type I Diabetes, and my organization can send them letters inviting them to participate in the study. This is a pretty good strategy. It’s not perfect; those with no health insurance won’t be represented; those who don’t want to be in a study won’t be represented. Still, it’s pretty good and maybe the best I can get. All in all, we want to consider generalizability always in choosing how to obtain our sample. That is, will my findings generalize to the larger population of folks I want to study? Sometimes we stratify our sample. To make sure my findings generalize to both men and women, I include an equal number of both men and women in my sample. In this case I’m stratifying by gender. How Do I Summarize My Data? Descriptive Statistics Well let’s try another example. Perhaps I’m interested in starting a clothing and shoe boutique for BU undergraduates, and I want to know something about their sizes and their preferences. Maybe I do a survey to obtain this information. I collect data on their gender, height, shoe size, number of shoes, and wardrobes (number of ties, t-shirts, pairs of jeans), and preferences (how much they like the colors red and green. What now? What do I do with my data? First, I want to be able to just look at my data. I can graph my data—with potential values on the x-axis and the number of cases on the y-axis. If you look at Figure 1, you can see that I have graphed shoe size for a small sample of BU undergraduates. This graph is the distribution of my data on shoe size. If you examine it you will see that 2 people wore a size 6, 5 wore a size 7, and so on. graph of shoe size for a sample of 20 individuals. Figure 1 In Figure 2, I did the same thing for how much the students liked the color green, graph showing how much the students liked the color green Figure 2 and in Figure 3, I examine the distribution for student height. graph showing distribution for student height Figure 3 Shaqille O'Neal size 22 shoe Example of an outlier—Shaquille O’Neal's size 22 shoe Taken by David on Flickr: Some rights reserved. Examining the distribution of your data is helpful in identifying odd cases; for example, the old basketball star Shaquille O’Neal wore a size 22 shoe. He’s what we would call an “outlier”—he just doesn’t fit into our distribution of scores. The Normal Curve An interesting phenomenon is the normal curve. When you get a large number of cases, the distribution starts to take on the “bell” shape. There are more cases toward the middle and fewer in the extremes—typical of a large number of phenomenon and very useful in psychology. As examples, height is a good example. There are a few people who are very tall and a few people who are very short, but many more people fall in the middle. That’s the typical bell curve. Now think about intelligence. There are a lot of folks who are around the middle, and a lot fewer folks who have extreme scores on intelligence, either very high or very low. example of bell shaped curve Source: By Inglesenargentina (talk) (Uploads) - Own work, Public Domain, Link Measures of Central Tendency Secondly, I want a number to tell me what the “typical” subject looked like. These numbers (or statistics in this case) are known as “measures of central tendency”, and there are three of them. Measures of Central Tendency Mode is the most common score in the group. Median divides the distribution in half with the remaining 50% of scores above and 50% of scores below it. Mean is the arithmetic average. You add up all the scores and divide by the total number of scores. You can probably compute an average in your sleep. These are used in different circumstances. For categories (say for instance gender) we tend to use the mode. We might say “the modal (or typical) introductory psychology student is female”. We might use the median for data that doesn’t really fit the bill curve very well. We often use the median to describe the typical home price in a community. Let’s say $500,000 is the median; this is useful because there may be homes that are much, much more expensive, but the $500,000 is much more typical. So in this case the median gives us a pretty good idea of what is typical. Most often in psychology we use the mean. That’s because many phenomena take on characteristics of the normal curve, and this allows us to use a number of statistical procedures that we’ve found useful. Optionally, and for another look at measures of central tendency you can view the video below. Measure of Central Tendency More Descriptive Statistics Commonly Used Measures of Variability Thirdly, I need a number that will tell me how much the different participants in my research differ from one another. Are they all similar on a particular characteristic? Or are they very different? To find this out, I use a measure of variability. Take a look at this next graph, as it gives you an example of what I mean by variability. Examples of Variability examples of variability Let’s ignore the green line for the time being, and focus instead on the blue, yellow, and red lines, as each of these represent different distributions. Interestingly for each of these, the mean is exactly the same. The blue distribution has little variability, and scores for most folks are fairly similar to one another. The red line is a different distribution, and there’s a wider range of scores. The yellow distribution is very wide. So although the typical score for each of these distributions is the same the amount of variability is quite different. Here are three measures of variability that are often used: the range, variance, and the standard deviation. Let me tell you a little about each. Range The range is the lowest score subtracted from the highest score. So let’s say in my data that the largest shoe size is a 13 and the smallest shoe size is a 6; so the range here would be 7 (13-6). The range tells me a little bit, but it can be influenced a lot by an extreme score. Add Shaquille O’Neal to the class and suddenly the range goes up to 16 (22-6). Variance The variance is a little tricky to explain, and I’ve included an example for you to delve into. What the variance does is it takes each score and subtract the mean from that score. Then each of those resulting scores is squared; the squared scores are all added up; and we divide by the number of scores. So what you end up with is the average of the squared deviations from the mean. Now if that sounds confusing read it again. You will not be the only one confused. This is a tricky concept. Although the variance can be handy for some statistical techniques, it’s a little hard to interpret. How do we figure out what it means? Standard Deviation One of the ways that was developed to help interpret the variance is to convert it into the standard deviation. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. To calculate the variance you squared all the deviations from the mean and took the average, so now you just take the square root of that number. It’s a little easier to understand the idea of the standard deviation. Now, just to drive you a little crazy I’m going to ask you to learn a little bit about the relationship between the standard deviation and the normal curve. Look at the image below, as it shows you how the standard deviation is related to the normal curve. How to Calculate Standard Deviation Attributes of the Normal DistributionAttributes of the Normal Distribution What it tells you is that if you go from the mean of the distribution to one standard deviation above the mean, you will have included 34.1% of all scores. If you include one standard deviation above and below the mean you have included 68.2% of all scores. If you go out even further and include two standard deviations on either side of the mean, that is two standard deviations above the mean and two standard deviations below the mean, you will have included another 26.4% of the scores in your distribution (13.2% between one and two standard deviations above the mean, and 13.2% between one and two standard deviations below the mean). So that means that you have included approximately 96% of all scores within two standard deviations on either side of the mean. I would never ask you to do math on a test, but I do want you to remember these particular percentages. These numbers remain the same across all distributions, and knowing them can help you compare scores. As an example, most intelligence (IQ) tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. So here’s a test for you! 2. What is the score for one standard deviation above the mean on the IQ test? a. 130 b. 115 c. 85 d. 110 e. 70 Show Answer 3. What is the score for one standard deviation below the mean on the IQ test? a. 130 b. 115 c. 85 d. 110 e. 70 Show Answer 3. What percentage of people have a score between 85 and 115 on an IQ test? a. 44% b. 96% c. 100% d. 68% e. 25% Show Answer So back to our data on the clothing habits and preferences of undergraduates! In the next two tables, I have calculated and show you the mode, median, mean, range, variance, and standard deviation for some data I collected from my PS 101 students on height, shoe size, and how much they liked the color green on a scale from 1 to 7. Research Methods: Shoe Size Central Tendency Variability Mode = 5 Median = 4 Mean = 3.94 Range = 7 (6–13) Variance = 3.13 Standard Deviation = 1.77 Research Methods: Color Green Central Tendency Variability Mode = 5 Median = 4 Mean = 3.94 Range = 6 (1 – 7) Variance = 3.85 Standard Deviation = 1.96 Just another word about outliers. We always need to be careful to check our data. Imagine I decide to look at the data on how many shoes students own. I could calculate the mean, median, variance, and standard deviation here. Now, I just had someone add the class, and her name is Imelda Marcos. Do any of you know who she was? Interestingly, she was the wife of the Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos. They were excessively rich (although the Philippine people were certainly not) and it was said that she owned over 3000 pairs of shoes. I realize that she is dead, but for the sake of argument let’s say that she really wanted to take PS 101 at Boston University. Imagine that Imelda just added my class, and I’ve included her data in my distribution. Oh no, what impact does that have? Well, the mean variance and standard deviation would be affected in a pretty striking way, because Imelda “carries more than her weight” in shoes. Again, she’s what we would call an outlier, and the mean and the standard deviation can be seriously impacted by her extreme score. Do Variables Go Together? Understanding Correlation Now that I’ve looked at my data, I have a sense of what the distributions of the variables are, what the typical participant looks like, and how much variability there is in my sample. Next I want to look at how some of these variables might be related to one another. Look at this next graph. Scatterplot: Association of Shoe Size and Height In this slide I have graphed students' heights on the y-axis against their shoe size on the x-axis. Each of the dots in this graph represents one participant. You can figure out his or her shoe size by going down from the dot to the shoe size on the x-axis and you can figure out his or her height by going from the dot to that position on the y-axis. You might think that shoe size and height would be associated, and you would be right. The dots seem to form a pattern, with many of them falling in an area from the left bottom of the graph to the right top of the graph. That is to say, as height goes up so goes shoe size. But the next graph is a bit different. Scatterplot: Association of Shoe Color and Liking GreenScatterplot: Association of Shoe Color and Height Here I have graphed my subjects' shoe size on the y-axis and how much they like the color green on the x-axis. Perhaps not surprisingly, there really is no pattern here. But who would expect shoe size to be related to how much one likes the color green? Correlation and Scatterplots When we talk about correlation we are talking about the degree of association between two variables—and the scatterplot is basically a visual representation of correlation. By looking at the pattern we can get some idea of the degree to which the two variables are correlated. The correlation coefficient is a statistical indicator of the degree of association. A few important points about the correlation coefficient It ranges from +1.0 to -1.0 0 means no association A positive correlation means that the scores go up and down together. For example, the more hours you study the higher your grade; the more sodas you drink the more weight you gain. A negative correlation means that as one score goes up the other goes down. Some people make the mistake in thinking that a negative correlation means things are not related, and this is not the case. You can have a strong negative correlation and it means that the two things are strongly related. For example, the more hours you study the fewer mistakes you make on an exam and on your homework. Here’s another good example. Let’s say I want to design a test that will indicate how good you are at golf. I think my test is a pretty good one, and I think that a high score will predict how good you are when you go out to play a round of golf. In case you are not a golfer, a good golfer has a low score, not a high score, when playing the golf course. If you have a high score on my golf proficiency test (suggesting you are a good player) then you should have a low score on the course, and that’s a negative correlation. Remember, if my test is a good one I will be able to predict your score. Perfect correlation occurs rarely, if ever, in nature. No two things are perfectly related. If I know something about your height, I have a general sense of your shoe size, but I wouldn’t know it for sure. There is still variability. Watch this for a further explanation of correlation and causation. Correlation CAN Imply Causation! | Statistics Misconceptions How Do I Compare Groups? T-Tests Let’s talk about another statistical strategy. What if I want to compare two groups to see if they are different on a particular variable? Students T-test is a strategy that I can use when one of my variables is nominal or categorical and one of them is continuous (that is it can have a range of values). In this case I can compare men and women (gender is a categorical variable) on both height and shoe size (both are continuous, as they can take a range of values). In this case my hypothesis is that men will have bigger shoes and will be taller than women. Here I’m comparing the distribution of scores for men to the distribution of scores for women. Of course, there is variability for both men and women—some have larger feet and are taller, some have smaller feet and are shorter. The Students T-test compares the variability within each of the distributions, the one for men and the one for women, to the variability between men and women. I don’t want you to worry about how to do this test, I just want you to understand what it does. The Students T-test allows me to determine whether there is greater variability between genders then within genders. Look at the results below. I’ve listed the mean and the standard deviation for shoe size and height for both men and women and I calculated a t-test for both height and shoe size. What I want you to focus on is something called the P value. The P value in the case of height it says P less than .001, and in the case of shoe size it says P less than .005. Let’s focus on height for minute. What the P value means is that if I conducted this study a thousand times, I would only find a difference this big by chance—one time by chance. It’s very, very, unlikely that such a big difference in height would simply be found by chance. Let’s focus on shoe size for minute. What the P value means here is that if I conducted this study a thousand times, I would only find a difference in shoe size and this big by chance five times. Again, this is very, very unlikely to be found just by chance. On the other hand, it’s very likely that men and women actually do differ in height and shoe size—and that it is a real and replicable finding. This is what we mean by statistical significance. Statistical significance means that it is very unlikely that such a finding is a result of chance. Now to say that a finding is statistically significant is not to say that it is important or interesting, only that it is very unlikely to be a chance finding. Honestly, the idea that men and women differ in their shoe size is really neither interesting nor important (unless you are in the shoe manufacturing business), but it’s very unlikely to be due to chance. So I want you to understand the idea of statistical significance as it will be very important going forward in your psychology studies. Do You Remember? See if you can identify the methods of research used in psychology and the differences between correlational and experimental studies by completing the exercises below. How Do I Ask More Complicated Questions? Advanced Statistics All in all, there are many statistical strategies for examining data and asking sophisticated and complicated questions. The ideas of correlation and the Students T-test are just the tip of the iceberg. Structural equation modeling In fact, there are many new strategies that allow us to examine complex data. Two of them I’ll just mention briefly. First, structural equation modeling uses the idea of correlation to simultaneously look at many relationships at the same time. Often times we want to examine complex questions that involve many variables at once. Structural equation modeling can help us to do that. For example, we may want to look at how adjustment to college is related to the distance from home, relationships with family members, social supports available in the college setting, and the course of study. We could use structural equation modeling to look at this. Longitudinal modeling Second, longitudinal modeling allows us to examine change over time. One of the main questions we often ask is how people change over time as a function of experience. As one example, we may want to look at how children learn to read, and what factors might predict success in reading. As another example, we might want to look at how individuals respond to certain kinds of treatments for anxiety or other mental health challenges. By using longitudinal modeling, we can address these questions. The best statistical approach You might ask what’s the best statistical approach? Well, it always depends on what the question is you want to ask! This is where in psychology, as in so many other sciences, it’s essential to have hypotheses. The Big Picture: Research Process in Psychology The image below illustrates the process of doing research in the field of psychology. Steps in the Writing Process In the first step, you have a topic that you’re interested in and you review what is known about that topic. You learn what others have found in their research and figure out where the gaps are. In the second step, you develop hypotheses, or predictions, that guide your research. In the third step, you select a research method and your participants. Then you collect your data. In the fourth step, you analyze your data and you either accept or reject your hypotheses. Were your predictions good? Or did they not work out as you planned? You might do some follow-up analyses to figure out more about why. In the fifth step, you submit your findings for what we call peer review. You write up your paper, select a journal that you’d like to publish it in, and submit to the editorial board. The editor sends it out for review to experts in your field who know a lot about what it is you’re studying. This is a great way to get feedback on your work. If you’ve done your study well and your findings are interesting, they get published for many others to read. Those findings become part of the larger research literature. Then you start the process again. This is how the science works. As researchers we all contribute to the larger body of knowledge. I hope this lecture gives you a sense of some of the basic methodology in the field of psychology and provides a good springboard as we move forward to the many topics that we will be discussing throughout this course. Review and Reflect Module 2 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 2: The Biological Level Monday, May 20 – Sunday, May 26 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 3–4 (Pages 64–102; 122–145; 165–184) Module 2 online content interface (2011, October 16). Stress: Portrait of a Killer. A National Geographic Documentary (2008) [Video]. YouTube. Discussions: Module 2 Discussion Initial responses due Thursday, May 23, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, May 26, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, May 28, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: Film Response Worksheet 1 due Monday, May 27, 5:00 PM ET Live Classrooms: Monday, May 20, 7:30–9:00 PM ET Activity: Complete Module 2 Review and Reflect, due Monday, May 27, 11:59 PM ET Welcome to Module 2 cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod2 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Learning Objectives List methods for studying the brain and specify the advantages and disadvantages of each. Describe how brain cells function. List major brain regions and their functions. Describe the difference between “sensation” and “perception.” Describe the pathway through which light travels from the eye to the brain, allowing us to see images. List cues that we use to determine depth perception. Brain Introduction Think back to the introductory lecture when I introduced the “levels of analysis.” Today we are going to focus on the biological level. We are going to focus on the brain and how it underlies human behavior. In talking about the brain, it is important to distinguish between structure and function. The brain’s structure is how it is built, what it looks like, and what parts are included. human brain structure Its function is how those these parts work together to get the job done. Think of it like a car. The car’s structure includes its parts—spark plugs, braking system, etc. The car’s function is how, when you start it up, all the parts work together to move it forward. brain function according to area of the brain We are going to be focusing in this module on both structure and function. emoji of Dr. Tompson with the wrods, so Structure is all about the parts; function is how they work together Methods for Studying the Brain But first, let’s look at the big picture…how do we study the brain? There are many techniques, each with advantages and disadvantages. I’m going to review several, but this is certainly not a comprehensive or exhaustive list; more are being developed! Autopsy Here brains can be examined after death. As an example, Boston University has the largest repository of brain tissue in the world focused on studying CTE. What is CTE? Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy. You may be aware that CTE has been of intense interest for some time now because of strong evidence that sports injuries, particularly those occurring on the football field, may lead to CTE. Advantages: Autopsies allow researchers to examine real human tissue and can tell us a lot about the structure of the brain. Disadvantages: The brain is dead, so we can’t see it at work. It’s like looking at a car that no longer runs. Although we can learn a lot about structure, we can’t learn much about function. Animal Models We are mammals; other mammals’ biological processes are similar. As an example, much has been learned by administering drugs (e.g., cocaine) to rats to examine their impact on behavior and on brain structure (after “sacrificing” the rat). As another example, in animal models the brain can be damaged in a very specific area (a specific lesion, we call it), and the impact of the damage can be studied. Advantages: Within certain ethical guidelines covering animal research, we can still conduct studies that we could not do with humans. Disadvantages: Sometimes it is hard to generalize to humans. We can’t easily replicate complex cognitive phenomena. For example, rats don’t learn to read, so we can’t look at how reading is learned in rats!! Testing Folks with Brain Damage These are “experiments of nature.” By understanding what happens when something goes wrong, we can learn about how the brain actually works. As an example, let’s say that a person has very specific damage in a certain area of the brain (maybe as a result of a stroke—a bleed in the brain). By carefully testing them we can learn so much about the impact of damage to that region on the individual’s behavior. We will talk a lot more about this when we talk about memory. Let me briefly describe the case of H.M. (so called to disguise his identity). H.M. had severe epilepsy (a seizure disorder) and had brain surgery to treat it; the doctors removed a particular region on both sides of his brain with the hope that it would improve his seizures. Unfortunately, very unfortunately, when he awoke he was no longer able to form ANY new memories about his life. Crazy as this sounds, he was able to have interactions with people daily and yet have to be introduced to them anew every day. Although he could remember things that happened prior to the surgery, no new memories (events after the surgery) could form. Sound horrifying? H.M. was tested extensively over the years, and this research greatly increased knowledge of the role of specific brain regions in forming new memories. Advantages: We can do these studies ethically and learn much. Disadvantages: The damage may not be as specific as we would need it to be to really understand fully the function of small areas (it is not a controlled experiment). There may be other (undetectable) damage influencing what is happening. The brain also undergoes changes AFTER damage; our brain may reorganize in some ways to compensate. The problems that lead to the damage in the first place (in H.M., seizures) may have changed the brain in some ways. CT Computerized tomography (CT) scanning builds up a picture of the brain based on the differential absorption of X-rays. Advantages: CT is relatively cheap and quick and is useful in revealing the gross features of the brain. For this reason it can be used in medicine to diagnose tumors, aneurysms, and other phenomenon. Disadvantages: CT has poor resolution and details cannot be seen clearly. EEG Electroencephalography (EEG) measures brain electrical activity by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp. The signal represents the electrical output from what we call the cortex of the brain. Example: EEG has been used to study the activity of the brain during sleep; we will talk about this a lot more later on in this course. It can also be done over extended periods of time. For example, in diagnosing seizure disorders, portable EEG equipment allows data on brain activity to be collected over a series of days, not just minutes or hours. Advantages: EEG has good temporal (in time or when) resolution (that is, it is capable of detecting changes in electrical activity in the brain on a millisecond-level), and it is one of the few techniques with such good temporal resolution. Disadvantages: It doesn’t have good spatial (where) resolution. So while we can determine when a change in activity took place, we cannot determine exactly where in the brain the change happened. PET Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses trace amounts of short-lived radioactive material to map functional processes in the brain. When the material undergoes radioactive decay a positron is emitted, which can be picked up by the detector. Areas of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity. So you can see how specific chemical substances change during certain tasks. Example: PET has been used to look at certain kinds of deposits in Alzheimer’s disease—a primary cause of dementia. It’s helped us to understand the process of how this disease works. Advantages: PET can detect cellular level metabolic changes, so it is very specific. Particular radioactive tracers can be used to look at specific chemicals. Disadvantages: Many folks may not be comfortable with having an injection of a radioactive tracer. It’s also expensive. fMRI In fMRI, a very powerful magnet is used to detect changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity. Active brain areas consume more oxygen leading to increased blood flow. FMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are active during a particular mental process (for example, reading, listening to music, watching images on a screen). Example: We can look at which regions are active during certain tasks. Researchers at Harvard actually wanted to look at how individuals respond to parental criticism! They obtained audio recordings of individual subjects’ mothers criticizing them. The researchers then played the recordings to the subjects while they were in the fMRI scanner and examined which brain regions were active! Pretty interesting! Advantages: FMRI can assess changes during specific tasks (i.e., memory tasks, watching videos, making ratings), because it has pretty good temporal resolution—the brains response is close in time to the event. Disadvantages: FMRI is very sensitive to movement; the study subject has to stay very still in the scanner! This sensitivity to movement makes it hard to do fMRI with children, as they aren’t so good at staying still. That said, strategies have been developed to help kids feel comfortable and to get good fMRI data. It’s also a little disconcerting to be in the scanner, as it is a pretty tight space. If you have claustrophobia (a fear of closed-in spaces), fMRI is pretty distressing! It’s also expensive. Now that we’ve reviewed some of the major techniques for studying the brain, let’s focus on some of what we know. We are going to focus on structure and function by examining individual neurons (nerve cells) and neuroanatomy (the major structures of the brain). Brain Cells and Their Function Let’s focus on neurons. The average brain has about 100 billion neurons! In addition, there are many other cells that support and protect your brain. neuron So, what are some of the major parts of the neuron. First, on the left side of the image are the dendrites. Remember that there are other neurons further to the left and right (this is just one cell). The dendrites take in information from the adjacent cells. That information is merged in the cell body, which then sends an electrical signal down the axon. The axon is coated by a substance called myelin. Myelin speeds the rate of electrical transmission down the axon. Interestingly, there is much less myelin on the axons of the brain during infancy; over the first two years of life, neuronal axons are acquiring myelin, making transmission of messages much faster. The child rapidly becomes more capable of a variety of activities and responses. We also see lots of myelination during the adolescent years—a period of rapid brain development. During adolescence, neuronal transmission becomes much faster and more efficient—adolescents are becoming better and faster thinkers! We will get back to this. Back to the electrical signal coming down the axon: As the axon comes to an end, it begins to branch out. When the electrical signal gets to the end of these axon branches, the signal needs to get to the next cell. This is where the process changes from an electrical one to a chemical one. This is why we refer to neural transmission as an electro-chemical process. The terminal endings do not actually touch the dendrites of the next cell. There is a gap between the terminal ending of the axon and the dendrite of the next cell, and we refer to this tiny gap as the synapse. So here’s what’s happening with synaptic transmission, that is, transmission across that gap or synapse. Within each axon terminal ending there are tiny pockets of a chemical substance or neurotransmitter that is produced by the cell; these tiny pockets that store the neurotransmitters are called vesicles. The nerve impulse stimulates these vesicles to move to the end of the terminal button and to release their contents into the synapse. These neurotransmitters then attach to specific receptor sites on the dendrite of the next cell—we call this next cell the postsynaptic neuron. Some neurotransmitters are excitatory—tthey increase the likelihood that the next neuron will fire (send an electical signal down its axon); some are inhibitory—they decrease the likelihood that the next neuron will fire. It is the sum of all of the inputs that determines what will happen (to fire or not to fire, that is the question!). synaptoc transmission Here is a different view of the synaptic transmission. So, what happens to the neurotransmitter substance after it is released into the synapse? There’s leftover in the synapse; what happened to it? Well, two things can happen. First is a process we call reuptake. In reuptake the neurotransmitter substance is taken back into the cell from which it was originally released. It can then be used again in the future. I think we can consider this the brain using recycling. Second is a process called degradation. Your brain is a small but efficient chemical factory, producing many substances. In addition to neurotransmitters, it also produces a number of enzymes. Some of these enzymes are involved in the process of degradation, and they essentially come in and "clean up" the leftover neurotransmitter. When I think of this, I imagine them as little street sweepers, getting rid of the old junk and mess. Implications: Neurons, Medical Disorders, and Medical Treatments So why is all this important? It’s important at the level of basic and applied science. moji of Dr. Tompson with the words, By understanding how the brain works we can understand diseases and drug actions I think the best approach to thinking about this question is to use examples. A couple of interesting examples help us to explain some behavioral disorders. How many of you know what multiple sclerosis or MS is? MS is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks myelin on neuronal axons. The myelin is broken down, and this impacts the rate of neural transmission. Individuals with MS experience a range of symptoms, including changes in vision and difficulties with motor activities. The effects of MS will vary depending on which neuronal axons are most affected, and the symptoms of MS can vary between individuals. multiple sclerosis As another example, too much or too little neurotransmitter can cause problems. The neurotransmitter substance dopamine is involved in a number of important functions. You may have heard about the pleasure center of the brain, which is a dopamine-rich area in the midbrain (we will talk about the midbrain a little bit later). Stimulation of dopamine neurons in this part of the brain leads to feelings of pleasure. In Parkinson’s disease, we see the death of dopamine cells in a particular part of the midbrain called the nigra striatum. The nigra striatum is essential in movement. One of the main symptoms we see in Parkinson’s disease is difficulties with movement. The death of those dopamine cells underlies the symptoms we see in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson's Disease Let’s focus a little bit more on dopamine. Let me take a little bit of a side trip. How many of you have heard of schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is what many people think of when they think of “mental illness.” Indeed, schizophrenia is a severe mental illness in which individuals experience perceptual distortions, including hallucinations, and may develop delusions, which are odd beliefs not based in fact, including severe paranoia. One of the major theories about schizophrenia is known as the dopamine hypothesis. This is the idea that too much dopamine neurotransmitter in certain brain regions may lead to some of the symptoms that we see in schizophrenia. By understanding something about neurons and neurotransmitter substances we can understand something about neurological and behavioral disorders. We can also understand how some drugs work that affect behavior. I’m going to talk about the impact of some drugs that are used to treat psychiatric and neurological disorders. I want you to remember something. When you take a drug, you generally take it orally, that is, you swallow a pill. However, when taken orally, a medication goes to the places you want it to go to have the effect you’re looking for, and it also goes to places where you don’t want it, causing side effects. For example, let’s say that you have a lung infection and so you take an antibiotic to treat it. That antibiotic goes through your bloodstream and hopefully kills the infection in your lungs. At the same time, it may go into your digestive track and kill some bacteria in your gut that are actually pretty useful. Sometimes people get stomach and digestive problems as a side-effect when they are taking antibiotics. Here is another example. Antipsychotic drugs have been used to treat schizophrenia. Most antipsychotic drugs are dopamine antagonists. What does this mean? This means that they reduce dopamine. They generally do this by blocking the postsynaptic neuron so that dopamine cannot have its effect to the same degree. By reducing dopamine, these antipsychotic drugs can have a powerful impact on behavior. They are frequently used in the treatment of schizophrenia to reduce the hallucinations and delusions of the disorder, and they do so pretty effectively. But there are side effects as well. This is because they also reduce dopamine in the part of brain called the nigra striatum, and one of the side effects of antipsychotic drugs is that they can produce Parkinson-like symptoms. If you look at videos of patients in psychiatric wards, you can see some move slowly, they don’t swing their arms (rather holding them tightly to their sides), and they appear quite still. These are all the Parkinson-like side effects; we say Parkinson-like because it doesn’t really lead to dopamine cell death, like you would see in Parkinson’s disease, and the symptoms go away if you stop the antipsychotic drug. It would be great if we could send the medication only where it’s needed and not to places where it’s not needed! This is one of the great challenges in current drug development efforts. neuroleptics L-Dopa: Now in the case of Parkinson’s disease, there is too little dopamine in the nigra striatum because the cells are dying. It would be good if we could give people dopamine to treat their Parkinson’s disease; however, dopamine is a large molecule and it does not cross what is called the blood-brain barrier (a system of microvascular cells that, among other things, protects our brain from toxins). But we can give people something called L-Dopa, which can cross the blood-brain barrier. L-Dopa is a chemical precursor to dopamine. When given to people with Parkinson’s disease, it helps them to synthesize dopamine in the brain, and it improves the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. However, L-Dopa can have some side effects! Remember, it’s not just going to the nigra striatum; it also ends up in parts of the brain that may be implicated in schizophrenia. So, for some patients, a side effect of L-Dopa can be the development of hallucinations! Not a good side effect! SSRIs: Another class of drugs that has been developed to treat a range of psychiatric problems, including anxiety and depression, are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or SSRIs. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter substance that is important in the regulation of mood; low levels of serotonin have been associated with depression (among other problems). So how do we think that the SSRIs work? Well, they do exactly what they say they do—inhibit the reuptake of serotonin from the synapse. When reuptake is inhibited, there is more serotonin available in the synapse to continue to have an impact. I think this can be confusing. Reuptake reduces the amount of serotonin that is available, and by reducing reuptake, increases the amount of serotonin available. It’s a bit of a double negative: by reducing the reducer, we increase serotonin. It is this blocking of reuptake that is thought to underlie the antidepressant effect of SSRIs. MAOIs: Let me tell you about another antidepressant medication. These medications are known as MAOIs, which stands for monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Norepinephrine, along with serotonin, is an important neurotransmitter that is widely distributed in the brain and seems to be strongly related to depressive disorders. Norepinephrine appears to be reduced in those with severe depression. So what is monoamine oxidase? Remember how I mentioned that one of the ways that we get rid of leftover neurotransmitter substances in the synapse is through degradation? Degradation occurs when enzymes come in and “clean up” the remaining neurotransmitter. Well monoamine oxidase is one of those enzymes, and it specifically “cleans up” norepinephrine. A monoamine oxidase inhibitor or MAOI will reduce the activity of monoamine oxidase. Again, we have a double negative kind of situation: the MAOI reduces the thing that reduces the norepinephrine (that is the monoamine oxidase). The MAOIs can be very effective in the treatment of depression; however, they’re not used all that often. Why might this be? Well, people who are taking MAOIs have to be on a special diet low in tyramine, as the MAOIs make it hard to metabolize tyramine. Ingesting foods high in tyramine, for example red wine or aged cheese, can be deadly for those taking an MAOI. One thing to remember about depression is that it is associated with thoughts of suicide and sometimes suicidal behavior. The last thing a doctor wants to do is give the patient a potentially deadly medication. I hope these examples give you a sense of why it’s important to understand processes involved in neurotransmission. I’ve focused on a few very “practical” examples, but there many, many more, both basic and applied. More on Neurotransmitters It is important to note that there have been over 100 neurotransmitter substance already discovered in the human brain. Our brains are highly complex and some of these neurotransmitter substances interact in ways that are not fully understood. I do not expect you to remember all of the neurotransmitter substances, but I’d like to highlight a few and ask you to remember them: Acetylcholine (ACH)—How many of you have heard of Lou Gehrig’s disease or ALS? In this disease, acetylcholine neurons in the periphery of the body die. This neurotransmitter substance is also of great interest to those who study Alzheimer’s disease, where there are greatly reduced levels of acetylcholine in the brain. acetylcholine Serotonin (5HT)—I mentioned that serotonin seems to be involved in depression, but it also seems to be involved in the regulation of aggression and also in sleep. Dopamine (DA)—I’ve already noted its important role in experiences of pleasure, psychosis, and movement. Norepinephrine (NE)—Also involved in the regulation of mood, movement, and arousal. Focusing on Structure: The Nervous System Click on this image to see a larger view Source: LiveScience Now that we’ve talked about brain function, let’s focus on brain structure. We’ll be focusing on the nervous system at a more general level, specifically at the anatomical level. First, let’s talk about some general divisions of the nervous system. At its largest level, the nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (all the nerves in the body EXCEPT the brain and spinal cord). The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the skeletal system and the autonomic nervous system. The skeletal system is involved in voluntary movement. When I reach out my hand, I’m engaging my skeletal nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is involved in involuntary, self-regulation (respiration, functioning of internal organs, maintaining heart rate, etc.). The autonomic nervous system is divided into two subsystems. The sympathetic nervous system controls arousal. For example, when faced with threats we can either fight or flee, and our sympathetic nervous system prepares us to do either, as our heart rate and respiration increases, blood flows to the muscles, and we prepare to deal with the crisis. Think about being chased by a large predator! Your body has to be ready for that! The parasympathetic nervous system is activated in calming sorts of situations. Think about the period of time following Thanksgiving dinner when we sit down to watch the game or take a nap. Digestion takes place at this time and heart rate and respiration are slowed. Pathways from the peripheral nervous system lead to the spinal cord, which transmits messages up to the brain. However some messages never go on as far as the brain. We have reflexes that operate at the level of the spinal cord. Most of you have probably been to a doctor’s office and had the doctor tap on your knee with that little rubber hammer. Your leg pops up involuntarily—this is an example of a spinal reflex. Another example is when you touch a hot stove and instantly pull your hand back. Some of you may have had the experience where you pull your hand back quickly but you don’t experience the pain for a few seconds. Although a spinal reflex causes you to withdraw your hand, the experience of pain occurs in the brain. It takes time for the pain signal to make it to the brain where it is processed. It’s a good thing that you don’t have to wait to feel the pain to pull your hand away—otherwise you would have been burned quite a bit worse than you were already. Source: Magic Spangle Studios: 3D Medical Animation—Central Nervous System Focus: The Central Nervous System So let’s focus on the central nervous system. As noted before, the spinal cord goes up into the brain. We can think of the brain itself as composed of three concentric areas: the central core, the limbic system, and the cerebrum or cerebral hemispheres. I’d like to discuss briefly some of the important structures in each of these areas. Let’s now focus on the central core. The central core is also known as the hindbrain and as the “old reptilian brain.” We refer to it as the old reptilian brain because, evolutionarily speaking, it is old, and it is shared by our distant reptile cousins. The central core helps regulate our internal processes (respiration, heart rate, etc.), allows us movement, and governs our level of arousal. These are all things that our distant reptile cousins are also able to do. Let me focus on several structures within the central core that I’d like you to remember: Source: SciShow—No, You Don't Have a "Reptilian Brain" Medulla Oblongata—This area is located at the top of the spinal column and regulates breathing and some reflexes involved in posture as well. It is at this point that many axons cross over so that control of the right side of the body is on the left side of the brain and control of the left side of the body is on the right side of the brain. Damage to the medulla oblongata, which can happen in severe car accidents, often leads to death. Cerebellum—This area helps coordinate movement. Damage to the cerebellum can lead to jerky and uncoordinated movement. Please make sure to distinguish between the cerebellum and the cerebrum as these are quite different. Reticular Formation—A structure along the central core, the reticular formation is involved in our level of activation and alertness. When you wake up in the morning your reticular formation fires up. Pons—Along with the cerebellum, the pons helps coordinate movement on both sides of the body. So, for example, when you are walking, as your left leg swings forward your right arm does as well and vice versa; this coordination is due to the hard work of the pons. The next concentric circle is what we call the limbic system. The limbic system is also known as the midbrain and the “old mammalian brain.” We think of the limbic system as the seat of emotion (very important). Other mammals also appear to experience emotion. If you think about your dog, your cat, or other mammals, you know that they can experience intense emotional reactions; reptiles, who lack the limbic system, don’t appear to experience emotions. Let’s face it, your pet lizard will never love you, but your dog will! Let me focus on several structures within the midbrain or limbic system that I’d like you to remember: limbic system Source: Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436 Thalamus—The thalamus is a major relay station. Information comes up from the peripheral nerves up the spinal cord into your thalamus and is sent out to various regions of the cerebral cortex. Information comes in from the cerebral cortex and goes through the thalamus and is sent out down the spinal cord and into the body. Hypothalamus—This rather small structure is responsible for homeostasis. Homeostasis is the balance that our bodies maintain—relatively stable blood pressure, temperature, glucose concentrations, etc. Hippocampus—This horseshoe-shaped structure is essential in the formation of particular types of memories. We will talk about it much more in the Memory section. The top concentric circle is known as the cerebrum or cerebral hemispheres. This is the highly convoluted cauliflower-looking structure surrounding the limbic system. This section appears to be relatively larger in humans than in other species. And we tend to think of those creatures with large cerebral hemispheres (as a percentage of total brain area) as being “smarter.” So, for example, dolphins and whales have large cerebral hemispheres, as do elephants. The outer layer of the cerebral cortex is composed of many cell bodies and we refer to this as the “gray matter.” Underneath the gray matter is what we call the “white matter,” which is composed of many myelinated axons. Let me focus on several divisions within the cerebral hemispheres that I’d like you to remember. Each side of the brain is divided into four lobes. cerebrumSource:By vectorized by Jkwchui [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0, At the back of your head is what is known as the occipital lobe. The lobe is essential in processing visual information. Damage to the area can lead to problems with vision; we will talk a lot more about this later in the module. On the size of the head near the ears is the temporal lobe. As you might imagine, just by location the temporal lobes are involved in hearing, but they are also involved in some aspects of vision. Damage to the temporal lobes can lead to difficulties in understanding and using language. Up at the top of your head is what is known as the parietal lobe. The parietal lobe is involved in the processing of what we call somatosensory information—touch, pressure, temperature. At the front of the parietal lobe is the sensory strip where this somatosensory information is primarily processed. I’d like you to take a look at this very odd image. This is known as the sensory homunculus. I don’t need for you to be able to identify this exactly or know all the details by any means, but I want you to understand what it illustrates. What this sensory homunculus is showing you is the amount of cortex in the sensory strip that is required for the processing of somatosensory information from different parts of the body. You will note that areas of the body that are more sensitive (to touch, pressure, heat, etc.) take up a greater area of cortex. An area like your lower back, which is not particularly sensitive, has a small amount of room allocated; whereas, an area like your tongue or lips, which are very sensitive, have more space allocated. sensory homunculus At the front of your head or skull is what is known as your frontal lobe. At the very back of the frontal lobe is an area called the motor strip. The motor strip is directly across from the sensory strip in the parietal lobe. And there’s a lot of “crosstalk” between the sensory and motor strips. For example, if you feel an itchy sensation on the side of your nose you may scrunch up that area to relieve that sensation. So sensory information comes in to the sensory strip and we respond with motor action (based in the motor strip). Just as I showed you a sensory homunculus, there’s also a motor homunculus. As with the sensory homunculus, more space is allocated to areas of the body that have greater dexterity. So, for example, very little space on the motor strip is allocated for your knee. After all, you can’t do that much with your knee. On the other hand, your fingers, thumb, and tongue have a lot of space—they are particularly dexterous. But there’s a lot more going on in the frontal lobe! This is the area that I noted earlier was damaged when the tamping iron shot through the skull of Phineas Gage. The frontal lobes are intimately involved in reasoning, planning, higher-level thought, abstract thinking, and control of emotions and social behavior. Interestingly, across development, the frontal lobes develop late, which explains why children aren’t very good at planning, reasoning, abstract thinking, controlling their emotion, or having more complex ideas. When people have frontal lobe injuries, they often have difficulties with emotional control and appropriate behavior. The two halves of the brain are roughly symmetrical and are connected by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is composed primarily of myelinated axons that carry large amounts of information between the two sides of the brain. I would encourage you to read in your textbook about split-brain procedures, where the corpus callosum is severed, so that you can understand its impact. What follows is a fascinating introduction to the regions of the brain that is conducted by Suzanne Stensaas, PhD, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Utah. While it is 13 minutes long, you will be looking at an actual human brain, and will be able to observe very clearly many of the previously mentioned brain structures, including the corpus callosum. Watching this video will help you remember the material in this section. Neuroanatomy Video Lab - Brain Dissections Do You Remember? Sensation and Perception Introduction Today we continue our exploration of the biology of behavior. Our topic is sensation and perception. The question addressed by the study of sensation and perception is really “how do we come to know the world?” There’s a lot of information out there in our world and we take it in through our senses: hearing, taste, touch, vision, smell. How is it that these processes work? moji of Dr. Tompson with the words,Perceptual systems evolve to enable us to adapt to a changing world I’m going to provide you a broad overview of sensation and perception, but I’m going to focus on visual perception. This focus is because researchers know more about visual perception than some of our other senses and because, as a species, we rely so heavily on visual perception to know our world. Sensation and Perception: Information Processing in the Brain Sensation and perception are almost always studied together because they almost always go together. However, we can also separate them in our discussion. When we speak of sensation, we are talking about the process of detecting a physical stimulus, such as light, sound, heat, scent, or pressure. When we speak of perception, we are talking about the process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations. Without perception we wouldn’t really know what those sensations mean. When we talk about sensation, what is it that we are responding to? Each of our sensory systems have evolved to be sensitive to particular stimulation in our environment. In visual sensation, we are responding to wavelengths of light. In auditory (hearing) sensation, we are responding to physical vibrations in the air. In olfactory (smell) sensation, we are responding to airborne chemical molecules. In gustatory (taste) sensation, we are responding to dissolvable chemicals in the mouth. Our sensory systems have evolved to be sensitive to particular information out there in our world and to enhance our survival. Basic Principles and Terms Let’s focus on some basic principles and terms in the study of sensation: Stimulus – The thing out there that we are trying to detect with our sensory organs: an image, a sound, an odor, etc. Sensory receptors — Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation (a stimulus). What do we know about these receptors? Well, first of all, the simulation needs to be a certain level for us to detect it at all! Sensory thresholds define the level at which a stimulus is strong enough for our sensory receptors to detect it. The absolute threshold is the smallest possible strength of the stimulus that our sensory receptors can detect about half the time. Absolute thresholds include for smell, one drop of perfume throughout a three-bedroom apartment; for hearing, the tick of a watch at 20 feet; for vision, in the range of 54 to 148 photons (depending on conditions). These are examples, but I do not expect you to remember them on an exam! The difference threshold is the smallest possible difference between two stimuli that can be detected half the time. We also call this the just noticeable difference (jnd). The difference threshold is how much we need to change the stimulus for you to know that it’s stronger. How much brighter does the room need to be before you notice a change in brightness? How much louder does your roommate need to speak before you notice? Weber’s law indicates that the size of this difference threshold (the jnd) will depend on the strength of the original stimulus. The stronger the original stimulus, the larger the difference needs to be to get noticed; and a ratio helps us understand this. For example, imagine that you are listening to some music, some soft soothing classical music (at 30 dB) as you drink your tea early on a Saturday morning. You want the music to be a little bit louder, so you turn the dial ever so slightly and notice that the music is comfortably louder and that this took only 3 dB. So in this case the ratio is 30:3. On the other hand, imagine that you are at a concert, a heavy metal concert with some friends. Maybe you wanted to go, maybe you didn’t want to go, that’s up to you. But the music is pumping, amplified to 120 dB. Let’s say the band feels that the music needs to be just a little bit louder (as if your ears aren’t already bleeding). Given what we know from the previous example—that for every 30 dB you need to increase 3 dB—how much does the band need to increase the volume of this heavy metal music before you would notice a difference? Well, if you said 12 dB, you would be right! It adheres to Weber’s law—3 dB for every 30 dB. Again, this is an example to illustrate Weber’s law. Transduction—This is a process in which physical energy (like light waves) is converted into a coded neural signal that our nervous system can understand and interpret. Sensory adaptation—This is a decline in responding to a constant stimulus. What does this mean? Let’s think of an example. Imagine yourself just having jumped into a freezing cold swimming pool. You feel a desire to levitate out of this icy water, and you may feel a prickling pain. But the longer you stay in that cold water, the less you notice it, and you may begin to feel perfectly comfortable. You have just experienced sensory adaptation. Let’s think of another example. Have you ever moved into a new apartment? Maybe there was an irritating sound next door that kept you awake for a while on the first night (perhaps the sound of an air-conditioner humming), but soon you cease to notice it at all and begin to sleep just fine. You’ve experienced sensory adaptation. Here’s one more example. How many of you have ever walked into another person’s home and been overwhelmed by the smell of what’s cooking (let’s say it’s garlic), but after a while you cease to notice it? The next person who comes in and says, “Wow, what a smell!”, and you respond, “What smell?”. You’ve experienced sensory adaptation. This helps you adapt! There are so many things to notice in our sensory world, and once we have perceived and adjusted to them our sensory systems need to move on to other things. Focus: The Visual System As a species, human beings are particularly dependent on vision to help us learn about the world around us. This is not to say we can’t do without vision, as many people who are visually impaired or blind function quite well. But for most with normal vision, we become highly reliant upon it. How is it that we see? First, wavelengths of light are the type of energy to which our visual receptors respond. I’d like you to take a look at this illustration of the electromagnetic spectrum. It’s interesting in that there is a HUGE amount of potential electromagnetic information out there in the world; the visible spectrum (what our visual receptors can detect) is only a small slice. We cannot see radiowaves or UV radiation or microwaves or gamma rays! There’s a lot happening out there that we don’t have access to. In fact, astrophysicists use very specialized equipment to increase the amount of the electromagnetic spectrum that they can “see.” That little slice of visible light provides us with a huge amount of information about our world. Electromagnetic SpectrumElectromagnetic Spectrum Vision involves a complex chain of events. Light is reflected from an object out there in the world, enters the eye, and passes through a number of structures: The first structure is your cornea, which is the clear membrane covering the visible part of the eye; it helps to gather and direct the incoming light. Interestingly, eye surgery often involves the shaping of the cornea using lasers. The second is your pupil, which is the opening in the middle of the eye that changes size to let in different amounts of light. It is surrounded by the iris, which is a muscle which controls how large the pupil is; the iris is that colored part of the eye. Here’s an interesting bit of information (which, while not on the exam, may help you in your personal life!). When you see something you like, your pupils get bigger! So if you see someone you find attractive, your pupils widen! Maybe you are just trying to get a fuller view! Also interesting…we look more attractive when our pupils are larger! Studies have been done using photographs of people and having others rate their attractiveness; photographs that had been touched up to make the pupils slightly larger were judged more attractive. Now remember that your pupils expand to take in more light in dark situations. My theory is that candlelight dinners are particularly romantic for this reason: You are sitting across from your mate in the candlelight and both of you have huge pupils! You think, “Wow, you are amazingly attractive, your pupils are so large!” (Actually, you aren’t even consciously aware of why!) The third is the lens. The lens is a transparent structure that focuses the light right onto the next, very important, structure. That final structure is the retina—this is where the sensory receptors for light reside. These receptors are known as the rods and cones. Here are a few things to know: The rods (over 100 million of them) are very sensitive to light and to movement but don’t do so well with color. The rods really fire up in low light situations, but it takes time. If you go outside on a dark night for a walk, you may not see well at first but over time, as your rods get going, you begin to see much more clearly. It takes about 30 minutes for these rods to really get going and hit their maximum sensitivity. The cones (about 6 million) are sensitive to color and contribute to visual acuity (they help us to see small details clearly). Densities of rods and cones in Human retina Now this next slide is interesting. It shows the distribution of rods and cones across the retina. Along the bottom of the figure (the x-axis) is the location on the retina, and along the side of the figure (the y-axis) is the density of rods (in black) and cones (in red). You will notice that at the periphery of your eye (edges of your retina) you have lots of rods, but in the middle there are mostly cones. The area in the middle is known as the fovea, and it is the most sensitive to small details. When you want to view an object carefully and clearly you look at it directly so that the image falls on the fovea. Let’s say you want to look at your friend’s new engagement ring—you look directly at it, the image falls on the fovea, and you are able to see all the details in the setting and all the tiny stones around the edge. You don’t look at it sideways! On the other hand, if you want to look for a very faint light, your rods are better at this. On a dark night when you are stargazing and want to see a very faint distant star or planet, you are better off looking just to the side of where that star or planet should be. Then the image falls on the rods, which are more sensitive to faint light. Different receptors may be particularly sensitive to different colors of light and different angles and lines. Information from the rods and cones is then transmitted to bipolar cells and ganglion cells. These cells then form the optic nerve, which is a bundle of axons that transmits the information to the back of your brain—an area known as the occipital lobe—where it is processed. Just for fun, below are two different images that depict rods and cones and their distribution in the retina. Source: Scientificanimations OpenStax College, via Wikimedia Commons Visual problems, including blindness, can be due to many factors. First, you may have damage to the structures of the eye—the cornea or lens—for example, following an accident. Second, you may have damage to the rods and cones in the retina, for example, due to macular degeneration (deterioration of cells at the center of the retina). Third, there may be problems with the optic nerve, for example, as a result of degeneration of myelin due to multiple sclerosis (MS). Fourth, you may have damage to your occipital lobe, for example, as a result of a stroke. Vision is a complex change of events, and problems can happen at many levels. Once the information reaches the occipital lobes, an increasingly complex set of events takes place. We put the information together, add it to what we already know about the world, and form conclusions about what it is that we are seeing. How Do We See Color? Another important part of visual perception is perception of color. We seem to be pretty good at being able to judge colors. So how do we do this? Any object’s color is a function of what wavelengths of light that object reflects. So, in reality, color is just our perception of different wavelengths. Let’s talk more about what the perceptual experience of color really is, as it involves three different properties. The first property is what we call hue, and it is a property of wavelengths of light. We see different wavelengths in different ways and, based on hue alone, you can see about 120 different colors. The second property is what we call saturation, and this corresponds to the purity of the wave of light, that is the degree to which it is or is not influenced by grays. The third property of color is known as brightness, which corresponds to the amplitude of the light wave. All these properties combine to allow us to see color well. So how is it that we see color? Well there are two theories of color vision. Let’s talk about each. First, the trichromatic theory of color vision states that our perception of color is due to the fact that certain cones in the retina are sensitive to either red light (long wavelengths), green light (medium wavelengths), or blue light (short wavelengths). When you see a color reflected off an object, some of each of these cones will be stimulated, and the total combination will lead to your perception of the color. This particular theory has been helpful in understanding colorblindness. In colorblindness, an individual may be missing cones for either the red, green, or blue wavelengths. And, in fact, red blindness and green blindness are fairly common forms of color blindness. Second, the opponent process theory of color vision suggests that our perception of color may be due to opposing pairs of color receptors, including blue/yellow, red/green, and black/white. When one member of the color pair is stimulated, the other is suppressed. The opponent process theory of color vision is pretty good at explaining the afterimage. Look at this video to have a demonstration of the afterimage. You need to look at the original image very closely and intensely—focus your eyes at the center of the page—and when it is withdrawn you will see the negative afterimage. Color Flag Afterimage What has happened here is that you’ve stimulated one member of the color pair, and when that color is withdrawn there is a surge in the opposing color. So you go from seeing a black, green, and yellow flag to seeing one that is red, white and blue. It has been determined that both the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory may both be true, just at different levels of visual processing. So, we’ve focused on processes in sensation…now let’s move to the next piece of the puzzle: Perception The visual systems allow us to collect a lot of information from out there in the environment, and now we need to be able to process that information in a way that we can then make sense of it. We have to figure out what it all means! We learn over time, through experience, how to interpret this information. Our visual systems allow us to make sense of the world and to answer particular questions about the world around us. What are some of the major questions our visual system can answer? Remember: your visual system has evolved over millennia to enhance survival. Imagine that you, an early human, are standing out on the plains of Africa. You see a creature in the distance. What important questions do your visual systems need to answer about this potential information? Three are particularly important: How far away is the object? Where is it going? What is it? We'll look at each of these questions more closely on the next pages. Depth Perception First, how far away is the object? We use a number of important pieces of information to answer questions about an object’s distance. Take a look at this figure, as it details information that we use to tell us about distance. Two sets of factors provide information about distance. The first set of factors available to us are called monocular factors. Mono=one; ocular=eye. We could get information about distance even if we only had one eye. The second set of factors available to us are called binocular factors. Bi=2; ocular=eye. The fact that we have two eyes also helps us judge distance. Let’s focus first on monocular factors. Among the monocular factors are those at play when objects are moving and those at play when they are either still or moving. Among the factors we use to judge distance without movement are those known as pictoral cues. We call them pictoral cues because they are also used by artists to give a sense of depth to paintings that would otherwise seem like a flat canvas. What are the these pictoral cues? Relative Size. When we look far away and see two people coming toward us and one is very small and the other is much larger, we know that the larger one is likely much closer. We don’t assume, as this would be quite incorrect, that the larger one is simply an enormous person and the smaller one is a very tiny person. We have all learned that relative size tells us something about distance. Overlap or Interposition. When we look out at a beautiful rustic scene and see that a barn is partly obscured by a large maple tree, we recognize that the maple tree is between us and the barn. We don’t assume that it’s a weird barn with a maple tree in the middle of it. We’ve learned that when one object partly obscures another, that obscuring object is between us and the other object, is overlapping the other object, or is an interposition between us and the other object. Aerial Perspective. This cue is at play for very long distances. When we’re looking at distant mountains, we can judge their relative distance (compared to other mountains) by how obscured they are by the atmosphere. We know that the ones that are more blurred by the atmosphere are further away than the ones that are less blurred. We have learned that the amount of blurring from the atmosphere (aerial perspective) gives us information about the distance. Texture Gradient. If you’re standing on a cobblestone road, you can look out in the distance along the road and see that the cobblestones up close are easy to see as individual objects. As you look further out, the cobblestones begin to gradually become less distinct and eventually appear only as splotches of different colors. Similarly, if you look out over a crowd, the people close to you appear as individuals, but the further you look the less distinct they are, and eventually they just become a sea of different colors. You’ve learned to interpret this gradual change (texture gradient) as an indicator of distance. Linear Perspective. Let’s say you are standing on a railroad track that goes off in a straight line into the distance (don’t actually do this, it’s not safe; let’s keep it as a thought experiment). If the track is very straight, the two rails will appear as two lines that get closer and closer together the further away they are. Going back to the idea of pictorial cues, you can see how artists used this linear perspective to give a three-dimensional idea when they were, say, painting a town with streets that go off into the distance. Monocular Cues: Adjusting to Depth Perception Problems In addition to the information provided by these pictorial cues, we also use information from the amount of change in our eye muscles required to keep the object in focus. This is called accommodation. Our brain has learned the meaning of particular amounts of accommodation as representing particular distance. When an object is moving, we also use something called motion parallax—closer objects move faster and more distant objects move more slowly. Think of yourself on a train and you’re looking out the window. The objects close to you, including stations, trees, grasses and other objects, whip by very quickly. Faraway objects, like mountains, move very slowly. We use this information to give us a sense of distance. I think it’s important to remember that we learn to use this information and interpret its meaning. So those are the monocular factors. But most of us have two eyes and are able to take advantage of this fact when judging distance. Strategies that use both our eyes together to glean information about distance are referred to as binocular factors. So what are these binocular factors? First, we use retinal disparity to give us a three-dimensional image of the world. You get slightly different images from each of your eyes. If you close one eye you see one image, and if you close the other eye you get a slightly different image. Your brain puts these two images together and produces a three-dimensional perspective on the world. I don’t know if any of you have ever traveled to an international city and visited a gift shop. I remember going to one in Paris and getting something called a stereograph. The stereograph looks like a set of binoculars, but it has slides of different images enclosed in it. One image goes to the right eye and a different one goes to the left eye. It fools your brain by giving different information to each eye and you perceive a three-dimensional object. I remember being in Paris and getting a stereograph with an image of the Arc de Triomphe. Second, we use convergence to give us information about distance. Put your finger up about a foot from your eyes and move it slowly toward your face. You will notice that your eyes each move inward to keep the object in focus. You’re crossing your eyes slightly and that information—the amount of convergence—is used by the brain to give you a sense of how far away the object is. So you are able to use a lot of information to answer this very basic question: “How far away is it?” Motion Perception Where is it going? So, after you know how far away the object is, you might want some additional information. What’s the next question you want to answer? That question is, “Where is it going?” I think you’d want to know whether the object was moving away from you across your line of sight, or toward you. Clearly, information on this might enhance your survival! So here are some assumptions we make in motion perception: We interpret motion across the retina as indicating movement “out there.” This information helps us in determining where an object is going. Is it moving towards us, away from us, across our line of vision? Is it getting larger? As the object moves across the retina, we have to adjust our eye movement to be able to keep that object in focus. And our brain is able to use information on the microfine adjustments our eyes make to tell if it is getting closer or further away. We also compare the moving object to the stationary background. We make the assumption that objects move and backgrounds stay stationary. This is generally a pretty good assumption in most situations. Sometimes it is easiest to illustrate these factors when we consider illusions of motion—these are times when our visual systems are fooled by the assumptions we make about the nature of moving objects. There are two that are pretty interesting. Induced motion. We assume that the background is stationary and the object moves, but this isn’t always true. The Moon illusion is an example of this. When you look up at the Moon in the middle of the sky on a windy night with lots of clouds, it seems that the Moon is racing through the clouds, even though it really is the clouds that are racing past. It will also give you an odd sort-of dizzy feeling. Now I suppose one could argue (especially if you study astrophysics) that the Moon and Earth are certainly always moving, but I would respond that this certainly does not explain the induced motion illusion here—in a much more immediate and close-at-hand way the clouds are what is really moving.Let’s think of another example…how many of you have been driving and maybe eased up too much on the brake? Your car starts to move but you perceive it as others around you moving! You are making the assumption that you in your car (the background) are stationary and the other car (the objects) is in motion. Oops!! Stroboscopic motion. Here’s another interesting example of when our visual systems can fool us. Let’s say I lined up 12 LED lights in a row. I lit up the first one, and just as I turned it off I lit up the next one, and just as I turned that one off I lit up the next one, and just as I turned that one off I lit up the next one, and so on. What would you see? You would perceive it as the light jumping from one spot to the next spot. In other words, you would see motion where there actually was none! The light moves across the retina, and we interpret this as motion. When we see light changing in this way we can assume erroneously that there is actual movement. Let me give you another example of this phenomenon in play. How many of you have ever seen moving neon signs? I remember being in Las Vegas and seeing one of a coffeepot “pouring” coffee into little neon cup. There was a stream of lights from the spout of the pot into the cup. As one light went off the next went on, and so on. It appeared as if the drops of coffee were actually pouring into the cup. Let’s consider another very interesting example. Cartoons use stroboscopic motion as a means of allowing us to see motion from still objects. In a cartoon, a succession of images of the cartoon character are rapidly flashed in front of us. Each image is slightly changed in every exposure, so it casts a slightly different image onto the retina. These gradual changes are interpreted by your visual systems as movement even though it’s just that you are seeing that changed object in quick succession. Alright? So the sad truth is that Bugs Bunny can’t actually move. Motion Perception Clearly, the assumptions we make about the nature of the world, based on our experience with it, allow us to fairly accurately judge the distance of objects, to determine whether an object is moving toward us or away from us, and so on. So we are collecting info but we are also making judgments based on our previous experiences. Although we can be fooled by the assumptions we make, we are, happily, pretty accurate most of the time. I think it is very important to recognize that these processes are automated and generally happen out of our awareness. Shape Perception What is it? So, what’s the next question you’d want to ask? Remember that you, an early human, are standing out there on the plains of Africa and see a creature in the distance. You’ve determined that the creature is far away now but is moving towards you. Now the next big question, and perhaps the most important question, would be: “WHAT IS IT?” If it is a meerkat (a harmless and cute little critter), you don’t need to worry, but if it is a lion (a large and fast predator), you perhaps want to start worrying and potentially plotting your escape route. Shape perception is basically answering that question: What is that thing out there? You have receptors in your retinas that are sensitive to all sorts of small details—lines, edges, angles, etc. It seems like a lot of information! How do you pull all of that together into something that makes sense? That’s a very tricky task. Your brain takes all this information and makes a perceptual hypothesis about what that object is. This hypothesis is based on all the information you’ve collected about angles and lines and adds it to what you already know and have experienced in the world. It’s amazing how good we are at all of this. All day every day we are responding to objects out there; we are collecting data, putting it together, and making hypotheses about the nature of the objects. Now one thing we do know is that shape is the primary determinant for identifying an object. Infants, children, and adults name new objects according to their shape (not color, not size). When we categorize items, we do so according to shape. This is referred to as shape bias. Now, I want to distinguish between bottom-up processing and top down processing. Bottom-up processing is recognizing an object based on its component parts. Bottom-up processing is built on our collection of the smallest pieces of information. Top-down processing is when you take all those little pieces and you make a perceptional hypothesis. As a simple example of top-down processing, you say “It has a back, a seat, legs—it must be a chair!” You are taking all that information, putting it together with all that you know about chairs and other objects, and making that perceptual hypothesis. Top-down processing is really built on higher cognitive processing. Now I am giving you a very concrete example; in reality, when you perceive the environment through your retinas you are getting a lot of very minute information, and you are putting it together to say, “That must be a so-and-so.” Again, you make that perceptual hypothesis. In this processing, bottom-up and top-down occur almost simultaneously. You collect all this information and you make a hypothesis on what it is, and you are pretty good at doing that. This is an unconscious activity that you do all day long. You see things and you identify them, and you are making your best guess. Sometimes you are wrong, but most of the time you are right. Sensation and Perception—Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing Making Sense of a Complex Visual World: Gestalt Psychology Now one of the things we have to do when we are out there in the world is we have to try to make sense of very complex stimuli. When you look out onto a scene, perhaps while walking down a street, you are seeing a very complex set of visual inputs, right? One of the first things you do is to start pulling that scene apart—into its component parts. What pieces go together and what pieces are separate? Part of this process is determining the figure-ground relationship—the perceptual process of separating the main elements from the background. As you walk through the museum, you see all of the beautiful things around you. You may see an amazing painting—you think, “Ah, this is a picture of vase!” Yes, the vase is surrounded by flowers and fruit, but you are separating the elements—the vase is the figure the rest is background. You are looking out at a lovely scene as you hike on a warm spring day. You see a huge oak tree with a nest in it; you think, “Ah! Look at this amazing tree with a bird’s nest. (I wonder if there are some eggs in it?)” Yes, the oak is surrounded by saplings, old leaves, other small trees, and shrubbery. But the oak tree is the figure, everything else is the background. You engage in a process where you separate the central object, the main element, from its background. In this figure-ground process, we also “parse” a complex visual input (scene) to try to determine which elements go together. Gestalt psychologists studied the laws that governed perception and were very interested in how we parse (separate into pieces) a complex environment. How do we go about pulling apart a complex scene so that we can understand the pieces that do go together? What are the laws that govern perception? Gestalt means “Whole-Form.” Gestalt Principles Here are some of the “laws” that govern how we parse the scene. The first is based on similarity; we tend to see things that are similar as going together. Look at the example to the right. Most of us would say that there are two lines—each composed of objects that are similar in shape and color; even though the lines are overlapping we see them as distinct from one another and each forming a whole. As another example, let’s say you are walking in the woods and you see leaves that are shaped similarly to one another—maybe they are maple leaves. You tend to say, “Ah! That’s all part of this one tree” because the leaves are similar. Another law governing parsing is closure; we tend to close, or complete, objects that appear to be unclosed or incomplete. Take an example that follows. rectangles You see these squares? Now most of us wouldn’t say, “Wow, that’s a blue square and a gold and red square with little chunks cut out of the corners!” When you are perceiving objects, you close each of them; you say: “Ah, those are three squares—blue, gold, and red—that are overlapping.” So you closed two of the three objects so that you see them as whole, full-formed objects. Another law governing parsing is that of good continuation. We tend to see objects as continuous. So if you are looking at a path going out away from you, and it’s partially covered by leaves, you are not going to say, “Oh, that’s a path with a huge gap in it.” You would say, “The path is continuous—t’s partially covered, but it is continuous.” That’s this idea of good continuation. I think one of the things that is interesting about these processes is that we can make mistakes and miss things. We all make assumptions in our perceptual process, and most of the time we are right, and that’s why we keep doing it. But sometimes we are wrong, and good continuation is an interesting example of where you can be wrong. So, how many of you know what camouflage is? I’m guessing most of you. We say that an animal can camouflage itself when it can disguise its presence and blend into the environment. For example, a praying mantis or other insect is very hard to see because it blends in with the texture and/or color of objects around it. When you are looking at a leaf and it has a stem, you don’t necessarily see that the praying mantis is laying across that leaf, because you don’t expect to see it there; it’s green, and it continues in the same color and direction of the leaf. We tend to not notice it because of our assumption of good continuation—we are making an assumption here that things continue in an expected way, and we parse the insect with the leaf, when actually it is not the case; indeed it is a separate object. There is an insect here, interrupting the texture, and yet we see it as continuous and miss that camouflaged insect altogether. Proximity is another law that governs parsing. We tend to group things that are close to one another as one object and we tend to group the ones that are a little further away as a separate group. Take a look at the example that follows. shapes depcting proximity So here in this visual example you probably see three groupings of these green hexagonal shapes, and you see them as separate groupings because they are farther from one another, and yet the three are close to one another. That’s part of that natural separating process—what you are doing is that you are pulling things apart and figuring out what goes with what. Now imagine you are back in the woods and see maple leaves again. You would tend to see one group (all close together) as belonging to one tree; a group of maple leaves further away (all close together) would be perceived as belonging to a different tree. So, you are using these “laws”—similarity, closure, good continuation, and proximity—to govern how you pull the world apart and put it back together as you attempt to make visual sense of a complex environment. Now, we’re making these perceptual hypotheses all day long! There is one central law that is above all others. Known as the law of simplicity, or Pragnanz (in German), it is the governing principle of the Gestalt psychology. It states that when more than one organization is possible, the one that you choose will be the one that produces the best, simplest, and most stable shape. So you could interpret the visual input in a number of ways, but you choose the one that is the best, simplest, and most stable. And I think this really goes back to the idea that in our daily lives we are all, in some ways, scientists. Every day of our lives we go around looking for information, collecting data, and making hypotheses about what those things are out there in the world, and most of the time we are pretty good scientists! How many of you know what Occam’s razor (or the law of parsimony) is? It’s the idea in science that the simplest explanation is probably best. So what that basically means in science is that we don’t choose the most complex hypothesis or theory, we want one that explains the phenomenon well, accounts for all the different aspects of it, but that’s fairly simple. We want it to be straightforward, and that’s what we do every day as perceptual scientists! We have lots of info coming in and we choose the simplest, most stable, best hypotheses to explain the phenomenon that we see. So that’s basically the idea of the law of simplicity, or Pragnanz—the governing principle of Gestalt psychology. cups or faces graphic Source: Bryan Derksen, via Wikimedia Commons Look at this. What do you see? How many of you see a vase? How many of you see two faces looking at each other? I think if you screw your eyes up a little bit, you can go back and forth and see both. This is what you call an ambiguous figure. This is the very unusual instance where you become aware of your processing of the figure-ground relationship. The idea here is that where it’s not so clear what the figure is and it’s not so clear what the ground is, you can kind of go back and forth in thinking about how you are going to interpret that figure-ground relationship. This is a situation where that simplest, most stable, best form isn’t so obvious (it’s ambiguous). However, we don’t often encounter these things. The Importance of Context and Prior Knowledge: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing Let’s talk about bottom-up and top-down processing again. Please go now to the site called OpenPSYC to read the material there. Be sure to watch the short (~ two minutes) video called Phonemic Restoration Demo. It’s interesting to think about how we rely on context to help us to interpret the world. Selective attention I want you all to think about—just do this little exercise for a minute—and think about a penny. A copper penny. What’s on a copper penny? Whose face? Lincoln. Which way is he facing? How many of you are not sure? I am not sure either. And what does it say on the copper penny? Can you remember? One of the things this illustrates is that we perceive the world in ways that are useful to us. How many of us need to know all the details of the copper penny? If you are a collector of coins, sure, you notice all those kinds of details, but most of us probably don’t. It’s good enough that it is the copper one, it’s a different color than the rest of the American money, so we know it’s a penny. And it has a certain kind of size—it’s bigger than a dime but smaller than a nickel. Most of us don’t notice the other details because we don’t need to. So in some ways, what you notice in the environment is also governed by what we call selective attention. You are attending to certain aspects of the world that are important to you and meaningful and helpful, but you may not be attending to the small details of things that you see every day. You are seeing the world in context and you are looking for certain things—things that are meaningful and can help you navigate the world. Automated processing top dpwn and automatice processing reading example How many of you can read this? Probably many, if not most, of you. It’s strange that any of us can read this, but many can! What the authors of this have done here is keep the first letter and the last letter of words and they flipped all the letters in between. How can anyone still read it? Part of what’s happening is that reading is highly automated (you have been reading since you were what? 5? 6?). You have been reading a long time, and you almost cannot NOT read—if you see a sign by the side of the road or on the subway or any other place, you are going to read it. So what’s happening here is that you have this very automated process; you have learned to recognize words, not by looking at every single letter, but by taking in the whole gestalt. Some folks have a harder time with automating this language recognition—folks with dyslexia or folks less familiar with English may have more trouble reading this. Most of you can do that fairly readily, and I think this is such a good illustration of top-down processing. If we didn’t read the world in this automated kind of way, imagine how hard it would be? For those with dyslexia, learning to read often takes a lot more work; they may learn to read automatically using a different approach. Automated processes allow you to go about the process of perception in a very efficient way. Perceptual Constancy Now you may think to yourself, “Isn’t it kind of weird that we have this constantly shifting world, and yet we are able to maintain some sense of consistency? How is it that even when objects change shape as they move we are able to see things in the same sort of way?” This is known as perceptual constancy. That is this idea that we maintain consistency in an ever-shifting world. So you are likely to recognize your friend even if you see them in a new place (like the grocery store), or even if next week they wear their hair differently. You’d recognize them if they put on a coat or wore a hat. Even though the light is different, the clothes are different, the time of day is different, so many things are different, we still maintain our ability to recognize. Some aspects of perceptual constancy include: Color constancy. You see color the same way even if you walk through a shadow; your green sweatshirt would still be perceived as the same color on a dark rainy day as on a sunny one. You still perceive that green even though its appearance has actually changed quite a bit. In these two pictures the lighting is very different, but you still see the oranges as orange, the banana as yellow, and so on. Brain Games—Seeing Color and Color Constancy Shape constancy. Shapes are shifting all the time. When I move from one side of the room to the other, my shape changes, and when I move around, my shape changes. Yet, those around me maintain shape constancy—they still basically know what I look like. So even when things are moving, we are still able to maintain that shape constancy. We have some sense of what that lion looks like—whether it’s coming towards us, away from us, sprinting, etc. And here you can see—you know that this is a round quarter, even though at different angles it can appear quite different. coins that look different shpaes but are not Size constancy. So, when I walk far away you don’t say, “Gosh, she is getting smaller,” you say, “Oh, she is further away—she is still about 5 feet 9 inches tall.” When I walk up close to you, you don’t say, “Oh my gosh, she just turned into a giant.” You recognize those differences. And so you maintain size constancy in ever-changing circumstances. I think it is important to recognize that we develop these perceptual skills over time. A small child can get really freaked out if you change your hair. I remember the first time I put my hair up in a bun when my son was very young; my son looked very confused, like he wasn’t quite sure it was me. This is an example of the evolving shape constancy. These kinds of perceptual expectations are emerging across development and suddenly you have a child who can do these things pretty well. Do You Remember? See what you can remember from the material on sensation and perception by matching the terms with their definitions. Review and Reflect Module 3 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 3: The Psychological Level Monday, May 27 – Sunday, June 2 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 5, 6, 7 (Pages 194-229; 240-271; 291-309) Module 3 online content JLC CHAIRS (2020, April 18). Discovering psychology: “The Developing Child” Produced by WGBH Boston with the American Psychological Association. (1990, 2001) [Video]. Annenberg Learner. JLC CHAIRS (2020, April 18). Discovering psychology: “Language Development” Produced by WGBH Boston with the American Psychological Association. (1990, 2001) [Video]. Annenberg Learner. Discussions: Module 3 Discussion Initial responses due Thursday, May 30, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, June 2, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, June 4, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: Research Article Paper Topic and Reading Indication Form due Thursday, May 30, 9:00 AM ET Film Response worksheet 2 (based on the two Discovering Psychology films) due Sunday, June 2, 5:00 PM ET Live Classrooms: Monday, May 27, 7:30–9:00 PM ET Activity: Complete Module 3 Review and Reflect, due Monday, June 3, 11:59 PM ET Welcome to Module 3 cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod3 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Learning Objectives Describe the classical conditioning model and give two examples. Describe the operant conditioning model and give examples. Compare and contrast positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. List the four schedules of partial reinforcement and describe their impact. Describe the stage model of memory. List strategies for enhancing memory. List stages of sleep and describe the activities during each stage, including body position, type of stage, presence of dreaming activity, and restoration of body and mind. Explain the difference between dyssomnias and parasomnias and give an example of each. Learning Introduction psychological level Good day! Today we are going to focus on learning. If you go back to the first lecture, you may remember the second of the concentric circles from our overall framework—the psychological level. We can think of the study of learning as fitting within that level. At the same time, learning often takes place between individuals, so the concentric circle above the psychological level—small interpersonal interactions—is also relevant here. How Do Psychologists Define Learning? General Types of Learning For the purposes of psychology, I’m going to define learning as a lasting change in behavior caused by experience. The study of learning is very tied with the study of memory, which is our next section. Because scientists have studied learning separately in laboratories, we are going to talk about it separately. Learning is essential as we adapt to a complex environment. braod types of learning We can separate learning into two broad types associative and non-associative learning. We will spend the bulk of our time talking about associative learning, but let me spend just a minute talking about non-associative learning. Non-associative learning focuses on a single stimulus. There are two types of non-associative learning. The first is habituation: Habituation is a decrease in response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. You may remember about sensory adaptation from our discussions of sensation and perception. Sensory adaptation is a specific type of habituation—habituation of the sensory systems. But the idea of habituation is more general. One example: exposure to a new toy is quickly followed by habituation. Once a child has played with the new toy, it often ends up under the bed, at the bottom of the toybox, or on the floor of the closet. The child habituates to the new toy, loses interest and moves on to something new. This can be a good thing because once you’ve learned everything you can about the new toy, experience, situation, you need to move on to other things. Another example: walking on a new surface takes a while to adjust to, but over time you cease to have difficulty. Your body has habituated to this new stimulus and you’re able to manage it with little attention paid to it. You might notice that sometimes it’s very hard to habituate to a sound or an experience. For example, babies and toddlers have a lot of trouble habituating to loud noises, and they often do not like fireworks. Their neural systems have not developed in a way that allow them to habituate to noise of this type. Also, habituation does not occur when the situation/stimulus is constantly changing. Habituation is adaptive. We only have so much attention to allocate, and we don’t want to allocate it in areas where we don’t need to. Once you’ve learned everything you need to know about a particular stimulus, you can move on to the next thing. Sensitization is a somewhat different process from habituation: Sensitization leads to an increase in response. One example: think about a time when you were young and perhaps had stayed alone in an empty house at night, and you heard a noise that startled you. You began to become more sensitive to noise, and you may have become startled more and more easily. Your neural systems have become sensitized to that noise. As another example: imagine you are out walking alone in the woods and you hear a branch snap as if something had stepped on it. Your “antennae” are up! Now you are more sensitive to the little sounds around you. You can imagine how this could be adaptive in situations of danger, where the sound of a branch snapping might indicate the presence of some kind of predator. I think it’s important to remember that this kind of learning is essential for survival. We soon learn what is important to pay attention to (sensitization) and what is important to ignore (habituation). Non-associative learning has been studied a lot in very simple animals (e.g., sea slugs). As I noted before our focus will be primarily on associative learning. Associative learning is then we make connections between stimuli, and this type of learning happens in many situations. Think about learning song lyrics or the rules to a game. Think of the times that a song reminds you of a particular situation or occurrence in your life or of a particular person or activity. These are all examples of associative learning. Perspectives for Understanding Learning In this lecture, I’m going to focus on three perspectives on the study of learning. This is not because these are the only ones, but these are influential ones. The first is the behavioral perspective, and I will spend most of our time on that one. The behavioral perspective arose in the middle of the last century and was highly influential. After a brief period where it lost some of its influence, it has resurged in importance in the field of psychology. The behavioral perspective focuses on outwardly observable behavior. The second is the cognitive perspective. This perspective focuses more on internal events (e.g., thoughts, ideas). The final perspective is the ecological perspective. The ecological perspective focuses on species-specific learning patterns. Categories of Learning Behavioral Perspective So, let’s start with the behavioral perspective. In talking about the behavioral perspective I’m going to focus on two basic types of learning referred to as conditioning. Conditioning really is another word for learning. The two types of conditioning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. I will talk about each of these in turn. Classical Conditioning Pavlov's dog cartoon Source: ©2006 Mark Stivers stiverscartoons.com. Used with permission. Many of you may have heard of Pavlov’s dog, but I’m going to focus on this again. I hope you enjoy this cartoon! I think it illustrates that maybe, while Pavlov was training his dog, the dog was also training Pavlov. Pavlov was a physiologist and he was interested in understanding digestive processes, and the dog was his subject. The dog was restrained (not uncomfortably) and Pavlov was observing their salivation. (I’m assuming here that the dog was a boy, but perhaps it was a girl). In any case, Pavlov thought of salivation as a reflex. You put food in the mouth, and the body produces saliva to help moisturize that food and make it easier to swallow and digest. Pavlov was giving the dog meat powder (doesn’t that sound unappetizing?) and then studying its salivation. However, Pavlov noticed something odd—the dog began to salivate before the food was placed in its mouth! Now why is that odd? Well, a reflex should not occur before the stimulus has impacted it—salivation shouldn’t occur before the introduction of the meat powder. Indeed, the dog began to salivate when Pavlov entered the room. It is from this observation that Pavlov began to develop his idea of classical conditioning. If you look at this image below it shows you the classical conditioning model. examples of classical conditioning In this model an unconditioned stimulus is one that provokes a certain kind of response without any previous learning history. An unconditioned response is the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. I want to emphasize here that no previous learning is required. So, meat powder (yuck) when placed in the dog’s mouth naturally produces salivation. Meat powder is an unconditioned stimulus producing salivation which is an unconditioned response. It helps to think of unconditioned as unlearned. What happens here though is interesting—the presence of the experimenter (Pavlov) is a neutral stimulus and certainly shouldn’t produce salivation. However, the presence of the experimenter is repeatedly paired with the presentation of the food. Over time, due to this repeated pairing, the presence of the experimenter becomes a conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response, the salivation. Now Pavlov need only enter the room and the dog salivates. The Psych Show There are many examples of classical conditioning, and the more that you can think of on your own, the better off you’ll be in trying to remember this idea. Let me give you a few examples: Example 1: How many of you have ever had what is called an acquired taste aversion? I bet many of you have. Are there foods that you avoid because just the thought of them makes you feel a little queasy? Here’s how it typically works. You have a stomach virus, but you don’t know it yet, and you eat a certain kind of food, let’s say meatloaf. A little while later you become violently ill, and from that point on you hate meatloaf; just the thought of it makes you sick. This is an acquired taste aversion and an excellent example of classical conditioning. The stomach virus is an unconditioned stimulus, and it produces the unconditioned response of nausea and vomiting. You don’t have to have any learning history at all to have this happen. It’s unconditioned. Unfortunately, you have paired the unconditioned stimulus (the stomach virus) with the meatloaf. Now the meatloaf has become a conditioned stimulus that produces nausea. Example 2: I had a friend who hated the smell of lilies. They made her feel so depressed. Here’s why. When her father was dying in the hospital, friends often sent lilies to the hospital room. Each time she would go in to see her father, she would smell those lilies. Now just smelling those lilies makes her feel sad. So, in this case, seeing someone you love ill and dying is an unconditioned stimulus producing sadness, which is unconditioned response. In her case seeing someone she loved ill and dying was paired with a neutral stimulus, the smell of lilies. Over time that smell became the conditioned stimulus, and just that odor would make her feel sad. Example 3: Drug addiction is a big problem in our society, leading to many ruined lives, overdoses, and anguish for many families. Classical conditioning can help us understand some aspects of drug addiction. For an individual who is addicted to heroin, the typical way to take the drug is through injection. Heroin is an unconditioned stimulus; it affects certain neurochemicals that produce an unconditioned response known as “euphoria” or an intense high. This effect is short-lived, and individuals often increase their use quickly to keep chasing that high. Interestingly, some individuals who are addicted to heroin would tell you that the high begins a little bit before the injection. The heroin user prepares the needle to inject, and that preparation is quickly followed by the injection. So, what we have here is an unconditioned stimulus, heroin, that produces an unconditioned response, euphoria. The heroin is paired with a neutral stimulus, the syringe. As a function of this pairing, the syringe can become a conditioned stimulus producing some euphoria on its own. This doesn’t last, and the heroin user eventually needs the heroin for that euphoria, but it’s an interesting example of classical conditioning. Example 4: Let me tell you about the case of little Albert. An early behaviorist named John Watson conducted an experiment, a highly unethical one, to see if he could condition a fear in a 9-month-old child. He sounded a very loud noise behind the child’s head. In a 9-month-old child, a very loud and unexpected noise is an unconditioned stimulus producing an unconditioned response of severe distress and upset. Watson did this repeatedly and each time before the loud noise he showed the child a little white rabbit. Soon the little white rabbit, previously a neutral stimulus, became a conditioned stimulus and elicited severe upset and fear in the child. Little Albert would cry when he saw the little white rabbit. This is clearly an example of classical conditioning, but it is also an awful example of the misuse of power and was unethical. Example 5: On a much lighter note, I’d like you to watch the video where I explain how potty training can be understood from a classical conditioning perspective and how treatments for kids who have trouble with bedwetting work by using a urine alarm to establish a classically conditioned response. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod3_potty_training_shorter video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Here are some factors that impact classical conditioning: The first is timing. For classical conditioning to be optimal the neutral stimulus should just precede the unconditioned stimulus in time. For example, in the case of Pavlov’s dog, the experimenter (neutral stimulus) showed up right before the meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) was put in the dog’s mouth. In the case of my friend who hated the smell of lilies, that smell (neutral stimulus) always preceded, by only a few seconds, her seeing her father lying in bed ill and dying (unconditioned stimulus). In the case of the heroin user, the syringe (neutral stimulus) always preceded the heroin injection (unconditioned stimulus). In the case of the urine alarm (as illustrated in the video), the bladder sensations (unfortunately, neutral stimuli) indicating a need to urinate preceded the activation of the alarm and subsequent loud noise (unconditioned stimulus). Stimulus generalization can happen. Sometimes, depending on one’s learning history, an individual can demonstrate stimulus generalization whereby not only the conditioned stimulus but other similar stimuli will produce the conditioned response. For example, in the case of little Albert, he became fearful not only of a little white rabbit but also a little white rat and a fluffy white pillow. He had demonstrated stimulus generalization. In the case of the heroin user, sometimes other aspects of the drug set up (not just the syringe) can also become conditioned stimuli; another example of stimulus generalization. On the other hand, depending on one’s learning history, an individual can demonstrate what we call stimulus discrimination. My friend only associated the smell of lilies with death and sadness. She still loved the smell of roses, carnations, and many other flowers. In her experience it was ONLY lilies that became a conditioned stimulus. The pairing of that smell with that sad situation was very specific. Extinction is what happens when the neutral stimulus is presented over and over again without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, let’s say that, had he been ethical, John Watson had begun to present little Albert with the little white rabbit without the accompanying loud noise. Over time the classically conditioned response would begin to weaken and hopefully disappear. This idea of extinction underlies the treatment of certain kinds of phobias. A phobia is an irrational fear. So, for example, say someone has a phobia of snakes. Through classical conditioning (and potentially other mechanisms), the person sees a snake and is extremely fearful. Using exposure methods, the person stays in a room with a snake, and the classically conditioned fear response eventually weakens. This assumes of course that the snake really is a harmless one (as most are) and not a cobra! Spontaneous recovery is when a conditioned response that has undergone extinction reappears. Let’s say that Pavlov stopped feeding the dog. For arguments sake we’ll pretend that he invented a dog feeding machine and no longer needed to come into the room to give the dog food. Over time, the conditioned response (salivating) would no longer be linked to the conditioned stimulus (the presence of the experimenter, Pavlov). In this case extinction would have occurred. However, one day Pavlov again brings in the meat powder and gives it to the dog (maybe his machine wasn’t working that day), and we see spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response—the dog again begins to salivate every time he sees Pavlov. Operant Conditioning Now let’s move on to another type of conditioning. This one we call operant conditioning. This type of conditioning was described in studies by B. F. Skinner. Operant is a strange word, and Skinner used it to describe voluntary behavior in which an individual acts or operates upon the world. The major idea of operant conditioning is that the likelihood of behavior occurring is influenced by the past consequences of that behavior. BF Skinner did a lot of his research with pigeons, which are some of the dumbest creatures in the world. I hope you don’t think I’m being biased, but I’m really not crazy about pigeons. Skinner recognized that when he gave a pigeon a treat for pecking at a disk, pecking would increase. So he did research with pigeons, giving them treats and observing the impact on their behavior. Let’s define some terms. The first is reinforcement. Reinforcement is defined as a consequence which increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. There are two types of reinforcement. The first is positive reinforcement. When we use positive reinforcement, we add a reinforcing stimulus and the result is that the behavior is more likely to occur again. For example, Skinner used pigeon treats to increase pecking behavior. Each time the pigeon pecked a disc, he or she would receive a treat. You can probably think of many examples where this works. One thing about classical and operant conditioning is that if you can think of an example you are more likely to understand the concepts. So I encourage you to generate your own examples. But I will also provide some! Let’s say that you love M&M's candy, as so many of us do. So let’s say I gave you a worksheet of math problems to solve. For each math problem I would give you an M&M’S candy. You would increase the rate and productivity of your math solving problems very rapidly. Let’s say I want to teach my dog to sit when I say “sit.” Each time the dog sits when I say “sit,” I give him a little treat. He soon learns to “sit” using this kind of positive reinforcement. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is when I take away a punishing stimulus and it increases the behavior. For example, think about when you go to drive a car and you sit down in the driver seat and start the engine. The first thing that happens is you hear a very irritating (I’ll call it “punishing”) stimulus—that buzzing sound. When you fasten your seatbelt, that sound goes away. The idea here is to train you to immediately fasten your seatbelt when you get in the car. By using negative reinforcement—the removal of the punishing stimulus—we increase the seatbelt-using behavior. The key feature of reinforcement is that, and I want to emphasize this strongly, it increases the behavior in question. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the behavior. Punishment on the other hand decreases the likelihood of behavior will occur. As with reinforcement, there are two types of punishment. The first is punishment by addition, also called positive punishment, where a punishing stimulus is added. For example, if every time you talk in class I walk over and hit your hand with a ruler, ouch, you are likely to decrease your talking in class. As another example, there’s a device some people use to decrease barking in a dog. You strap it to the dog’s neck, and when the dog begins to growl or bark, they get a very mild (not painful but certainly uncomfortable) shock. This leads to a decrease in growling and barking behavior. Some of you might think this is not the best way to go, and you may be right, but it is an example of a punishment. Another type of punishment is punishment by removal, also called negative punishment. In this case we take away a reinforcing stimulus to decrease behavior. Let’s say that you drive your car too fast, and the police catch you and take away your driver’s license. The idea here is punishment by removal, and hopefully you are less likely to drive your car too fast in the future. I think probably all of you can think of examples of where punishment by removal, or negative punishment, was used to try to change your behavior when you were young. I think people often get confused by the idea of punishment and reinforcement—the important thing to remember is that in reinforcement behavior increases, and in punishment behavior decreases. When we say positive reinforcement or positive punishment, we are not using “positive” as a value judgment but rather positive means the addition of the stimulus. Similarly, when we talk about negative reinforcement or punishment, we are not using “negative” as a value judgment but rather negative means that we take away or subtract a stimulus. emoji of Dr. Tompson with the words, Careful not to confuse negative reinforcement and punishment I think this all begs the question of what is a reinforcer? Well, some stimuli have natural reinforcing properties, for example, food when we are hungry or a drink when we are thirsty. These are what we call primary reinforcers—they have natural reinforcing properties for our species. Another primary reinforcer for human beings is what we call social reinforcement. When we are praised, when someone smiles at us, when we get attention from others we care about—these are very reinforcing stimuli for us. Social reinforcement is very powerful for our species. Some of my students questioned whether reinforcement really works for adults. I can tell you without question it works. One of my teaching fellows told me a story about a professor. In this case the class decided to play a trick on the professor during his lecture, and each time he would walk forward a step they would smile and nod. Unfortunately, he was lecturing from a stage. Each time he stepped forward, they smiled and nodded, and eventually he stepped right up the front of the stage! Now obviously this is not a nice thing to do. But I do think it illustrates the power of positive reinforcement, and social reinforcement in particular. Even more clear to many of us, it the power on social media of “likes”. The developers of social media have created a system whereby individuals spend increasing amounts of time on social media because they are getting these “likes”. Your attention is a product, and companies are using behavioral (reinforcement principles) to shape your behavior! Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment Let’s focus on some additional terms. A discriminative stimulus is something in the environment that indicates to you that if you engage in a particular behavior you are likely to be positively reinforced. For example, B. F. Skinner taught his pigeons that when a particular light was on and they pecked the disc, they would be positively reinforced with a pigeon treat; and when the light was off, they would not receive positive reinforcement. The pigeons quickly learned and only pecked the disc when the light was on. The light had become a discriminative stimulus. Think about a child in the classroom. Let’s say this particular child is a very good soccer player. If the ball rolled in front of her and she kicked it very hard and made a goal on the soccer field, she would certainly get a lot of positive social reinforcement. On the other hand, if a ball were to roll by her by mistake in the classroom and she were to give it a good hard kick, the consequences would be quite different. She would likely be sent to the principal’s office, where her parents would be called, and she would probably get in a lot of trouble. There are many things in our environment that function as discriminative stimuli, and in this case the context, be it classroom versus soccer field, is critically important. We quickly learn as a species which circumstances are likely to lead to reinforcement and which are not. We learn the discriminative stimuli. Some of you might ask, well, how do we train more complex behaviors? After all, in learning we often want to develop more complex behaviors than, say, kicking a ball, pecking a disc, or taking a step forward on the stage. One way we can do this is through something called shaping. In shaping we reinforce successive approximations to the desired behavior. I know that sounds complicated, but in the next video I’ll give you an example. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod3_maine_coon video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Operant Conditioning and Parenting So how can we help parents who are having difficulties with their kids? We can use a lot of what we know from operant conditioning. First, it is important to stop reinforcing problem behavior. One of the mistakes we often make is to confuse reinforcement and punishment. Sometimes when parents or teachers scold a child, they think they are punishing the child, but the behavior increases. Well if the behavior increases, it’s been reinforced not punished! Sometimes attention, even “negative” or unpleasant attention, can be powerfully reinforcing. If behavior is mildly annoying, ignoring it and not reinforcing it can often be enough to get it to stop. So, it’s very important to stop reinforcing problem behavior. Second, you can use a “timeout” to change a child’s behavior. A timeout is actually a punishment, because it is designed to induce the problem behavior to decrease. For example, when I was training, I did some consulting with a preschool. One big problem they had was a child who was a "biter". This is a very bad thing in a preschool, when one child bites another child! No one wants their child to be bitten. We encourage the staff to use timeout as one strategy to reduce the child’s biting behavior. The next time the child made any moves to bite another child, he was immediately removed and placed in a playpen alone with no interesting toys and ignored for one minute. We call it a timeout because it’s a timeout from positive reinforcement. All the fun things he had been doing were no longer available to him, so we can think of it as a punishment by removal, or negative punishment. Another strategy is to reinforce the nonoccurrence of problem behavior. I remember when my two boys were small. I wanted to increase their cooperative play and to decrease fighting, particularly at the Lego table. When I saw them playing nicely and sharing well, I would praise them and suggest a reward (maybe some Goldfish crackers). One can also reinforce incompatible behavior. Let’s say that a teacher wants to stop a child in her classroom from chatting with his peers during work time. When she sees him working hard on his math problems (incompatible with socializing) she adds a reinforcing stimulus, say five minutes of playtime with a peer after he finishes his page of math problems. You may have noticed that the emphasis here is on reinforcement rather than punishment. In working with parents, the focus is on reinforcement. Reinforcement tends to work better than punishment for variety of reasons. First, it is not always clear to the young child or to an animal (or often to one of us) exactly what it is that is being punished. Second, we tend to habituate to punishments. Punishments tend to have to get stronger over time. Think about nagging as an example. At first, when you are nagged you may respond right away and take care of whatever it is you’re being nagged about. But over time, the nagging just becomes background noise—easily ignored. The nagger has to get louder and more insistent. The punishing stimulus doesn’t have the same impact that it once did—habituation occurs. Third, if punishment is harsh, the individual can begin to fear the punishing agents (a parent or teacher). This is not our goal. Overall, there are a number of drawbacks with punishment. Moving from Continuous to Partial Reinforcement If you want to train a new behavior, it is often best to use what we call continuous reinforcement. That is, you reinforce each time the behavior occurs. So, for example, if I want you to do long division, I might give you an M&M’S candy for every problem you do that is correct. However, over time you might gain a lot of weight, encounter some health problems, or just lose your appetite! At this point I might want to move to what we call partial reinforcement where you only receive reinforcement some of the time. The question B. F. Skinner had was what is the best reinforcement “schedule”? He examined various reinforcement schedules with his pigeons. So let me describe partial reinforcement schedules. Partial Reinforcement Schedules examples of partial reinforcement schedules Fixed Ratio Reinforcement The first is what we call fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement. In a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement comes after a certain number of occurrences of the behavior. So, for example with Skinner, he might put his pigeons on an FR5 reinforcement schedule, that is, a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule of 5:1. The pigeons would have to peck the disc five times in order to get one pigeon treat. He found that with this schedule, behavior increased at a rapid rate—lots more pecking. Let’s think of an example from our world. How many of you have ever gotten “credits” from a pizza parlor? For each pizza you buy you get a point, and after you get five points you get a free pizza. My kids are on one of these at Domino’s Pizza. The idea here is that you are going to buy more pizza in order to get your free pizza (your reinforcer). Does this work? Well it seems to. Recently my son told me about this place in town where the kids get a free sandwich after they buy five, and he proceeded to explain how the kids went there as often as they could to get sandwiches so that they might get a free one. This is the perfect example of the fixed ratio reinforcement schedule. Variable Ratio Reinforcement Another type of reinforcement schedule is what we call variable ratio reinforcement schedule (VR). In this schedule, reinforcement is random in relation to occurrences of the behavior. Sound confusing? It’s not really. Let’s say I have you on a variable ratio of 10:1 (VR 10) schedule. So, ON AVERAGE, you get reinforced every 10 times you engage in the behavior. BUT that reinforcement could come after two occurrence of the behavior or after 20 occurrences of the behavior. The impact on behavior here is the behavior tends not to extinguish. We also call this the gambler's reinforcement schedule. I don’t know how many of you all have ever been to a casino in Las Vegas, Atlantic City, or elsewhere. Folks will sit in front of slot machines and play for hours at a time. They keep putting more money in, but the old gambler's fallacy keeps them coming back for more. The idea is that you don’t know when the payout is going to come, but you know that it will come eventually. Somebody has to win, right? And it might as well be you! So, you hold onto that slot machine and keep putting money in it. Maybe reinforcement will come on the next play, maybe it won’t come for 3,000 plays, but it will eventually come—you just know this. The casino has you on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, and your slot machine playing behavior is just not going to extinguish easily at all (that’s how they make their money, folks!). As another example I think of how we can put children’s irritating behavior on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. Let’s say you’re at the grocery store and your 6-year-old child is nagging and whining for a cookie (if ever there was a punishing stimulus, whining is it). The child whines and whines and whines, and you ignore and ignore and ignore. Finally, you throw up your hands and give her a cookie. Now she has you! You have just put her on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. She’s learning that if she just keeps at it, keeps on whining, eventually you will give in. Maybe it will take 5 more minutes, maybe half an hour, maybe an hour, but eventually it will pay off. Eventually she will get that cookie. So she keeps at it. The sad part here is that you’ve reinforced the very behavior you hate (whining); it is an example of positive reinforcement on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. Another thing that is happening here, though, is that your behavior (giving in) is also being negatively reinforced. When you gave in, she finally stopped the whining, and the punishing stimulus was removed; so maybe you’re more likely to give in in the future. You are positively reinforcing her for whining by giving her the cookie; she’s negatively reinforcing you for giving in by stopping whining! It’s not a pretty picture, is it? Fixed Interval Reinforcement A third kind of reinforcement schedule is fixed interval reinforcement. On this schedule you are going to get reinforced, but the emphasis is really on time rather than the behavior. So, with Skinner, he put his pigeons on this schedule—a fixed interval schedule of 5:1 (FI5), which meant that they got a pigeon treat every 5 minutes. They would peck lots for the treat right at the 5-minute point, then hang out for a while; as the 5-minute interval began to come to an end, they would peck again. So overall pecking increases at a moderate rate, but it tends to have this pattern. It reminds me of when I worked at the movie theatre as a teen. About every hour my boss would come out to check on us. Right before he was scheduled to come out, we would all start cleaning furiously; he would then praise us for all our hard work and disappear back into his office. We would then sit around and socialize. About 5 minutes before he was due to come out again, we would begin to furiously work . . . looks a little like Skinner’s pigeons, eh? Random Interval Schedule Last kind of schedule we’ll talk about is the random interval schedule. This is a weird one. It’s when the reinforcement comes at a random time that seems pretty unrelated to the behavior. So when Skinner used this schedule with his pigeons, he got some unpredictable changes in their behavior—one pigeon got a treat when he happened to be hopping on one foot, and he kept hoping on that foot over 1,000 times! This is what Skinner dubbed "superstitious behavior". You’re not sure what is happening, so you start engaging in this behavior. I think about sports fans—let’s say baseball. In baseball a home run is pretty rare; we all hope for one, and they are hard to predict. So, you just happened to have your cap on backwards when the Red Sox batter hit a home run, so now you wear your cap backwards all the time thinking it increases the odds of a homerun—that’s superstitious behavior! The homerun is random interval reinforcement . . . not really related to your behavior. On this reinforcement schedule, you can end up with behavior changes than are not desired. It’s not such a good schedule. Cognitive Perspective Robert A RescorlaRobert A Rescorla From the behavioral perspective, internal mental processes were not considered to be worthy of study, as these could not be observed. However, the cognitive perspective emerged as an approach for studying learning that emphasized the role of expectations, mental representations, and other mental processes. Robert A Rescorla was an American psychologist who began to demonstrate the role of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. From his point of view, classical conditioning was learning the relationship between events. His studies illustrated that for classical conditioning to occur, the conditioned stimulus had to become a reliable predictor of the unconditioned stimulus. Edward C. TolmanEdward C. Tolman Another important person was Edward C. Tolman, who demonstrated that cognitive events could play a factor in animal learning. Tolman worked with rats; he would put them in mazes and observe their behavior. If we are to believe the behavioral perspective thinkers, we would believe that learning only occurs as a function of reinforcement; however, Tolman illustrated that this is not the case. He found that when he placed animals in mazes and let them wander around for a bit, they were much more likely to find the food quickly when the reinforcer, the food, became available. To him this illustrated that the animals were learning something even in the absence of reinforcement. He referred to this as latent learning, that is, learning in the absence of reinforcement or reward. He used the term cognitive map to define a mental representation of the layout of the familiar environment. The rats would wander around the maze engaging in latent learning and then, when the food became available as a reinforcer, they would show what they knew. Bobo doll experiment Albert Bandura was another American psychologist and he focused on the role of observational learning and emphasized the importance of cognitive factors. Bandura suggested that individuals learn a lot by observing the behavior of others. One of the things that Bandura studied was the learning of aggressive behavior. He used the “Bobo doll” to illustrate this modeling behavior. He found that children who had observed an adult being aggressive toward the Bobo doll were more likely to engage in this behavior themselves when given the chance. However, if the children saw the adult being scolded for this aggressive behavior, they were then less likely to engage in it. Clearly the children had learned the behavior, but they had also learned the consequences of the behavior. In this case, one did not have to be directly reinforced but could instead observe the reinforcement or punishment of others and learn from that. Bandura suggests that cognitive processes are at play in determining whether imitation would occur. First, individuals had to be paying attention to the other person’s behavior. Second, they had to remember what the other person did. Third, they had to be capable, from a motor standpoint, of reproducing the behavior. Fourth, and finally, they had to be motivated to imitate the behavior with some expectation that doing so would be associated with the reinforcement or reward. The quality of the video that follows isn't the best, but it is an actual video of Albert Bandura describing the Bobo doll experiment. Everywhere Psychology As an example, consider how young Mayan girls learn to weave. Weaving is an important activity in traditional Mayan culture. Young girls learn to pay attention when their mothers are weaving, to remember the steps involved in weaving even before they are able to reproduce these steps. At a certain age when their hands are big enough, their mother will introduce them to the loom, and they are then able motorically to produce the movements needed. They are then reinforced for that behavior. I think this is a good example of observational learning. Ecological Perspective The ecological perspective emphasizes that to understand learning fully, we must consider that different species have unique behavior patterns; these behavior patterns have evolved over millennia to help the animal adapt to their natural environment. The ecological perspective does not deny that the behavioral perspective has validity, but it places limitations on what behavior can be learned. The radical behaviorist would say that you can teach any behavior if you have the right consequences. However, the ecological perspective would suggest otherwise. Let’s explore some background about this perspective and give you some examples to illustrate. John Garcia John Garcia was an American psychologist and he experimentally demonstrated how taste aversions can develop in animals. Some of his findings challenged the behavioral idea that any behavior could be taught. Let us consider conditioned taste aversions. I mentioned this earlier in the section on classical conditioning. As a reminder, most of you have probably developed a conditioned taste aversion. Think about a time when you didn’t yet realize that you had a stomach virus and you ate some food that you liked; but then, after a night of vomiting, you find that you never want to have that food again. You have a conditioned taste aversion. These taste aversions easily happen in humans and other animals. For example, the use of conditioned taste aversions has been used to try to reduce the poaching of sheep by coyotes. A sheep laced with a chemical that caused nausea (lithium chloride) was left out in the open, and coyotes fed upon it. The coyotes became violently ill. After that they began to avoid sheep. There was even a story of a coyote who saw a sheep and began to retch just looking at it! I think we can all relate to that if we’ve ever had a conditioned taste aversion; clearly this coyote had a severe conditioned taste aversion to sheep. No more mutton for dinner! There are several factors that make taste aversions interesting: First, in a classical conditioning model, conditioning is most likely to occur when the unconditioned response follows the neutral stimulus close in time. However, in the case of conditioned taste aversions, you may eat the food hours before you begin vomiting and yet you still remember and you make that association. Second, certain associations are more likely to be made than others. For example, Garcia found that rats were more likely to be able to make an association between external stimuli, like flashing lights or noise, and the experience of pain due to a shock; at that same time, they were likely to associate a taste stimuli with internal sensations, like nausea. However, it was REALLY hard to get them to experience nausea when they saw flashing lights! Let’s face it, it would be very hard to learn to associate noise with nausea. It’s just not natural. If you think of it from the perspective of adapting to the environment, what would be the value to the rat of becoming nauseous when it heard a loud noise? Or what would be the value to rats or to us of experiencing fear when you tasted a certain food? It's easy for us to make an association between taste and nausea; and that’s probably because this is adaptive in the world we live in. Creatures survived by learning quickly which foods were not good to eat, and the cues for that are smell and taste. Creatures also survived by learning quickly which noises could signify a threat and the cues for that are auditory and visual (things we hear and see). Biological preparedness is the notion that we are innately predisposed to make certain associations and not others. This biological preparedness has likely emerged over millennia to help animals adapt to their environment. As an example, I want you to think about phobias. Phobias are excessive or irrational fears. The most common phobias include insect phobias (particularly spiders and stinging insects), large carnivores (like dogs), and such things as heights. Now if you think back over our evolutionary history, it was probably good to be able to be afraid of such things, as through much of human existence these were threats to our survival. On the other hand, most of us are not threatened by these in any real way in the world we currently live in (death from insect bites or from being ingested by a large carnivore is, thankfully, rare). However, these continue to be the stimuli that elicit fear in many people. Interestingly, things like automobiles or light sockets are much more dangerous in today’s world, but you rarely find someone fearful of automobiles or light sockets—these just don’t become the focus of people’s phobias. It looks like human beings are biologically prepared to associate certain stimuli with fear (ones that were threats throughout our evolutionary past) but not so much other stimuli. This is not to say that no one ever had an automobile or light socket phobia, but they’re pretty rare. You may find it extremely interesting to view the video below, in which Dr. Robert Batsell discusses flavor aversion, and then goes on to talk about it in relation to cancer treatment. Flavor Aversion Learning in Cancer Treatment | Robert Batsell | TEDxKalamazooCollege It’s also the case that animals’ natural behavior patterns can interfere with the learning of new behaviors. B. F. Skinner trained many young psychologists, and some of them went on to work in Hollywood training animals to act in movies and to do all sorts of strange things! However, they were more successful in their training efforts in some instances than in others. For example, in one situation they tried to teach pigs to play soccer, which is hardly an activity that pigs naturally engage in. They found that they could teach the pigs to hit the ball with their snouts and move it up and down the field, and yet at times the pigs would stop and begin to root around the ball and attempt to bury it. Well, that’s kind of what pigs do in their natural environment. The pigs’ natural behavior patterns were interfering with their ability to learn this new, and somewhat useless, behavior. Instinctive drift is a term used to describe the tendency of creatures to revert back to their natural instinctive behaviors. As another example, Skinner students tried to teach raccoons how to play poker. This didn’t work so well. The trainers would give a raccoon a poker chip, and then give the creature a second poker chip. But the raccoons didn’t like to give the poker chips back, rather they would rub the two chips together. If you want to join the poker game you have to “ante up” with a chip, and the raccoons didn’t want to do it! I like to think about this image in my mind. Raccoons are pretty cute despite how very destructive they can be. What was happening here? Well, raccoons do not have salivary glands, and to clean their food they tend to rub bits of it together; so when they were given the poker chips, the raccoons reverted to their natural behavior—they demonstrated instinctive drift. Do You Remember and Conclusion See what you can remember from the material on learning by matching the terms with their definitions. In conclusion, behavioral principles have been used to understand behavior and they remain a useful and important strategy for changing behavior. At the same time, we need to be able to understand cognitive factors that impact learning, and we need to recognize that learning promotes adaptation for species in unique environments and that each species has its own evolutionary history that influences its ability to learn specific new behaviors. Memory Introduction I think memory is an interesting topic. If you think about your own memory, it in some sense defines who you are as a human being. Your memory is all those episodes in your life that identify you, form who you are. Your memory is your knowledge base, what you know about the world, and what you value. All these things are part of your memory. If you think about a life without memory, it’s a moment-to-moment existence. I’ll talk about some cases where this actually happened to people. In this section I am going to talk about what psychologists and other researchers have discovered about the nature of memory. I am also going to talk about some weird cases of repressed memories and other kinds of unique phenomena that we encounter in our culture. Waster Time: How Does Our Brain Store Memories? An Information Processing Approach: Three Processes When we think about memory, we think about it often as an information processing model. People have often used the computer as a model for human memory, and it’s not a bad model (although it has its detractors and certainly there are some questions on its validity). I think it provides a useful metaphor for thinking about memory. Based on this model, here are the three processes involved in memory. three processes involved in memory Encoding If you are going to remember something, you first need to get it into your memory. Many things can get in the way of you being able to adequately encode information. One of those things is attention. Before you can remember things, you have to pay attention. One of the problems that people have with this is multi-tasking. Multi-tasking is very interesting because we tend to overestimate our ability to do this. We think that we can answer our email and write our paper and do our math homework and check our social media accounts all at the same time. Is this possible? No! The answer is definitely no. We seriously overestimate how good we are at multi-tasking. We think we are good at it, but we stink at it! The bottom line is that when you multitask, you don’t remember nearly as much as you do when you focus on one thing at a time. I have been trying to do this. I have tried to set aside the time when I want to write, and during that time I do not answer my email. Yet I am drawn to my email in this inexplicable way. How many of you are drawn to Facebook or Twitter or some other thing? It’s a bad deal, because you are being drawn away from the thing you have been focusing on. Before you can encode items, before you can enter them into memory, you have to pay attention to them. So let’s all stop multi-tasking! Storage Second, after encoding, you have to retain items in memory—that’s storage. Once you have encoded those items, you have entered them into memory and you have to send them somewhere where you can keep them. Research has shown that memory storage is not located in one part of the brain; you don’t have a big storeroom in your brain where all those memories go to be housed. Memory is fairly widely distributed in the cortex of the brain, so there are a lot of places where memory is stored. You can see evidence of this in people who have dementia or other kinds of neurological problems where the brain is deteriorating—memory goes in bits and pieces. In one area, the brain is deteriorating, so some memories are gone; and this can be a gradual kind of process. Retrieval Source: ©Bill Whitehead. Used with permission. Third, you need to recover items from memory, and this is a process known as retrieval—where you go in and pull out the thing that you need to recall. How many of you have ever had the experience of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? This is that frustrating experience where you are just sure you know the information but can’t quite come up with it. Studies have demonstrated that people who report this tip-of-the-tongue experience have what we would call a partial retrieval. They may get the first letter of the person’s name, for example, but can’t remember the whole name. This illustrates that retrieval is not an all-or-nothing process; sometimes we partially retrieve information but can’t dredge up the whole memory. Probably most of you have had this experience. Your memory was encoded, you got it in there somewhere, but you just can’t fully access or retrieve it. So problems with memory can happen in each of these processes: maybe you never encoded in the first place; maybe you had a brain injury and your storage is gone; maybe it’s in there but you are just having trouble with retrieving it. You can have trouble at each of these points. Stage Theory of Memory So those are the basic processes in memory—encoding, storage, retrieval. But I also want us to think about memory in terms of stages that you go through when you are adding a memory. The stage theory of memory has been very influential. Let’s talk about the three stages; I am going to talk about each stage according to its capacity, duration, and function, and they are outlined on the next slide. attributes of sensory memory Sensory memory is the first stage of memory. When I am look out at a classroom full of students, I am taking in a tremendous amount of information into sensory memory. Looking at the world that you are walking through, you are taking in a huge amount of information. The capacity of sensory memory is extremely large. On the other hand, it doesn’t last very long—its duration is very short. Sensory memory allows us to briefly store impressions so that they overlap in time. You see one image, and you hold it very briefly. You see the next one, and you hold it briefly, and so on. In this way, you have an experience of the world that is continuous. There are two kinds of sensory memory that I am going to mention, one is called echoic—this is auditory sensory memory. When you hear people talking you can take in a lot of information, and that auditory sensory memory is called echoic memory (like an echo in your mind!). You are keeping that sensory memory (the thing that you have just heard) for a short amount of time. The echoic sensory memory is 2–3 seconds. It’s so short! But it allows you to follow the conversation. Iconic sensory memory is visual sensory memory. You have a very brief visual impression of what you just saw. The iconic sensory memory is just about half a second. Its function is to briefly store impressions so that they overlap in time. We all have the experience of the world as continuous. When you hear me speaking, you don’t remember the words that I say, you remember the gist of it—the message. You are not going to remember word for word; that echoic memory only lasts for a few seconds so that you can follow what I am saying, and I can follow what you are saying. This is the whole point of the sensory memory. George Sperling did much of the original research on this kind of memory. What are the other stages of memory? Short-Term Memory The next stage is short-term memory. Let’s talk about the capacity of short-term memory. I want you to pull out a piece of paper and click on the video below. I am going to read some digits, and I want you to listen and to try to remember them, and when I finish with the list, I want you to write them all down as fast as you can. I am testing your short-term memory. How many things can you hold in your short-term memory? cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_memory_test_1 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. You might say, professor, why are you torturing me like this? Well, what I am trying to show is the limits of what we call short-term memory. Short-term memory has limits. You can hold 7 ± 2 items (between 5 and 9 items) in your short-term memory. We think that there may be biologically-based limitations on what can be held in short-term memory. How many of you use what is called maintenance rehearsal to hold things, like a telephone number, in short-term memory? In maintenance rehearsal, you basically repeat the information to be remembered multiple times. Do you do that? That’s what most people do when they are holding digits in short-term memory. Short-term memory is only about 30 seconds, but you can extend it through maintenance rehearsal. There are other ways to expand your short-term memory. Let me illustrate: I want you to take a piece of paper and I am going to list some letters and I want you to listen to the whole list and then I want you to write them down as fast as you can. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_memory_test_2 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. By chunking material into meaningful units, you can hold more in your short-term memory. Sometimes people do this with digits. Instead of saying 4 and 9, they’d say 49. So you can hold 7 ± 2 meaningful chunks in your short-term memory. With phone numbers, this is kind of handy! You probably know several area codes by heart (for me these include 617 Boston, 781 farther from Boston, 512 Austin, TX, 310 and 213 Los Angeles, etc.). We use these chunks to expand our memory. That three-digit area code just became one meaningful chunk. The next part of the phone number is the exchange. After the area code, the exchange is a smaller unit of geography. In my town there are two primary local exchanges, and for me these are meaningful chunks. I can remember the area code, which is a chunk, the exchange, which is another chunk, and then only four more unique digits. We are able to expand our short-term storage through chunking. As another example, if I have you repeat a sentence, you are not going to remember each individual letter, you will remember the words, as each of those words is a meaningful chunk. You are able to keep a lot more information in short-term memory using this chunking strategy. Of course, in the age of cell phones probably none of us remembers phone numbers! Your short-term memory is indeed short, lasting about 30 seconds, and it is a temporary storage for information currently in use—we often talk about it as working memory. That’s the stuff you are using right now. You may take that memory and put it into long-term storage, or it might be something that you pulled out of long-term storage and are working on in this minute. For something to make it into long-term storage, it first has to go through the sensory memory, into the short-term storage, and then it finally makes it to long-term storage. Long-Term Memory Your long-term storage is theoretically limitless. You can fit a ton of information in there. Think about all the things you know. You know tens and tens of thousands of words and mathematical formulae; you have memories of events in your life; you have stored facts, stories, ideas, and so on. You have so many memories already in your long-term storage, and these memories can last for years and years. How many of you can remember things from childhood? My mother who is 81 can tell me about her experiences from her childhood, and that was 70+ years ago. The function of long-term memory is to store huge quantities of information, experiences, skills; then you have access to all these memories going forward. You can see that each of these stages is important to understand in terms of their different capacities, different durations, and different functions. Types of Long-Term Memories There are different types of information in long-term memory. We generally think of these memories as fitting into two broad categories. One is what we call implicit memory, and the other is what we call explicit memory. Psychology Unlocked: Long-Term Memory | Tulving (1972) | Procedural, Semantic & Episodic Implicit memories are ones that you may not even really be aware that you have, but you do. Here are two kinds: Procedural or skill-based—these are the “how-to” memories. If you haven’t ridden a bicycle in years, you can likely get on and still remember how to do it. How to ride a bike is one of those procedural memories. How many of you have played a musical instrument? If you don’t play your instrument for a number of years, you still might pull that instrument out and be able to play it (even though you’re very rusty). Your procedural memories are implicit. You may not remember when you learned them, you may not have been aware of their existence, but they are there. Classically conditioned memories are also there, and you may not have any awareness of them. For example, your fears may fall into this category. Something may have happened to you as a child and you retain that classical conditioned fear for decades, and it comes up again and again. Also, recent research in social psychology has focused on attitudes, and how some attitudes are classically conditioned. Say, sometimes types of prejudices can be classically conditioned or learned vicariously; these may guide our behavior out of our awareness. So classically conditioned responses are also implicit memories. Explicit memories are those “you know that you know.” If I ask you who the first president of the United States was, most of you born in the United States would know the answer. There are all sorts of things that you know explicitly; here are two types of explicit memories: Sematic memory is your knowledge-base, including words you know, facts you know, etc. Think about the many words you’ve learned over the years but haven’t heard recently; if you read a passage of literature and come upon these words, you’d be able to recognize and know what they mean. This is your semantic memory Episodic memory is your autobiographical memory. It’s called episodic because it’s the “episodes” of your life. You might remember a championship game that you played in your sport, a particular concert you attended or performed in, your graduation, a special birthday celebration, etc. You all have memories of your life that form part of who you are. That is your episodic memory. So we have our implicit memory—those things we are not aware of—and explicit memory—those things that we know about, things that we can speak to. Types of Processing and Organization in Memory Remembering and Forgetting: Crash Course Psychology #14 Two Types of Processing: Automatic vs. Effortful One type of processing is automatic processing, which involves a lot of implicit memories. I’ll give you an example. We learn how to navigate our environment. When I first moved into my house, I found that all the cabinets in my kitchen were magnetized. When they are nearly closed, the magnet engages, and they finish closing very rapidly. At first, this drove me mad. I cannot tell you how many times my fingers were smashed in the cabinet doors! I had all these bruises! Now I have learned to navigate that space—I am not even aware of it, explicitly, but implicitly I know when to let go of the cabinet and not to put my finger there. I don’t even think about it. The last time I squished my finger in a cabinet was probably a couple of years ago. I use automatic processing to navigate that space. We use automatic processing in many situations. How many of you have had this experience where you are driving somewhere, and you arrive and have no memory of the drive? You were on autopilot! So much of what we do is automatic. The second type of processing is called effortful processing. That’s what you are doing when you are studying. You are trying to take that information and put it into memory. This is what we do with many of our semantic memories. You have to put in a lot of effort to remember the material. Sometimes over time that effortful processing becomes automatic. Think about when you first started to read. At the beginning, it’s so effortful to read, but now you can be half asleep and you can read. You may find this is true of many things—simple mathematical procedures, playing and instrument, etc. Retrieval Processing So, now you have that information in there and you need to get it out or retrieve it. What happens then? Let’s talk more about retrieval. Let me go back a little bit. I want to talk a little bit more about long-term memory. First, recite the days of the week quickly!! Was that hard? No. I didn’t think so. Now, I want you to recite them again, but this time in alphabetical order? Quickly!! This is hard, isn’t it? I think this tells us something important. Information is not just like a dictionary in alphabetical order in your brain. You have organized information in your brain; you have put it where it is useful. What would be the point of knowing the alphabetical order of the days of the week? It is not helpful in any way. What is important is that the days of the week occur in a particular order and you have organized your memory to reflect that, to make information useful. Information is organized in your long-term memory—it’s not just an alphabetical list of things that you know. How do you best get information into long-term memory? One way is a strategy we mentioned before—maintenance rehearsal (we just keep repeating it again and again). Maintenance rehearsal is a pretty good for extending short-term memory for a brief period but a pretty lousy way to transfer information to long-term memory. A better way is through elaborative rehearsal. In elaborative rehearsal you consider how the new information is related to what you already know about the topic and how this new information relates to other information that you are putting into memory. How does it relate to the other concepts? How is it different from the other concepts? How does it contradict or reinforce other information I already know? That’s elaborative rehearsal. Your memory is what we call “schema-based.” A schema is a framework for understanding information about a particular area and the scaffold upon which you build up your new knowledge. You are always trying to figure out how to fit new information with previous information that you have. If you can fit it into your schemas, you are going to remember it better. For example, everything that I know about speaking Italian is in my Italian schema—my personal framework (based on previous experience) for understanding Italian language. A schema can be a framework of everything that you know about a particular topic. For some of us, we may take a new class and have no schema at all, and this is really hard—to remember things when you don’t have a schema to start with. This is why I think it is super important when you are learning new material to look at the structure—this helps you form a schema; it helps you with elaborative rehearsal. When you go into a book, there are headings and sub-headings etc. These are the structures that you can use to help you remember material, because memory is structured. So, if you can start to integrate into that structure, it’s going to be a lot easier for you to remember the material. The best structure is the one you create yourself, and your own schema is going to be different from other peoples’. emoji of Dr. Tompson with the question, so what are some good ways you can use aelaborative rehearsal to improve memory Here is an example of a kind of schema—a script. We all have scripts—these are schemas for how everyday activities work. I have this schema for the grocery store: I drive to the grocery store; grab my bags from my car; walk in; find a cart; head to the produce section first; then go to the processed foods section; then I go along the back wall for my dairy and meat products; etc. This is an example of a script; once you have one in memory you don’t have to re-invent it every time. You know how it works at the grocery store and what needs to be done. Most of us have a restaurant schema: You enter a restaurant; walk up to the host or hostess; say “I need a table for X (number) of people"; you follow them to the table where they leave the menus; the server comes and pours water; etc. Sound familiar? We all have our own schema for these things, but you can see there is some familiarity here. These scripts allow us to engage in everyday activities in a pretty seamless way, and the more you engage in that activity the more elaborate that script is. I went cross-country skiing with my kids, which was very fun, but I have only been three times in my life. For me there is only a basic script here, so every time I go, they have to explain to me how to put the boots on, etc. I don’t yet have a fully developed script for how all of this goes. More on retrieval. How do we get information out of memory so that we can use it again at times that we need it? One important factor in getting information out of memory is what we call a retrieval cue. A retrieval cue is a hint or a prompt that allows you to pull information out of your memory. Sometimes the reason you can’t remember things is because you have what is called retrieval cue failure. It’s not that the memory is not in there, but how do you get at it when you don’t have anything around you that is a prompt or a hint? Have you ever had the following experience? You had an experience a long time ago and haven’t thought about or remembered it for a long time, but then you go back to the scene where it happened, and suddenly your memory is improved—you can recall it with clarity! Let’s say that you are at your grandparents’ house one day, go in the attic and open an old trunk. You see the little stuffed animal that you had as a child and you start to remember all your experiences with this creature when you were a child. You haven’t thought about all of these things for years, but your stuffed animal is your retrieval cue that allows you to go back to those memories. It’s funny because I feel like there are parts of my life that I have no memory of, but that’s not true. I grew up in Austin, Texas, and I don’t spontaneously remember lots of experiences, but when I go to visit my sisters in Austin, it’s amazing how much I recall about particular events! Even seeing the old locations can be a powerful retrieval cue—it’s a prompt that allows me to pull up all kinds of memories. You probably all have these experiences as well. Testing Memory How do we test retrieval? There are lots of different ways: One way is free recall; that is recall with no retrieval cues. What if on the next test for a class the professor gave you a blank piece of paper and ask you to write down everything you learned since the last exam? Actually, you're doing free recalls every week during this course—a great way to learn but a painfully difficult way to be tested! A second way is cued recall. Let’s say that I had an exam that was essay questions, and I’d ask you to tell me about three processes of memory and describe them. The essay questions themselves give you some clues—retrieval cues to assist your recall. Fill in the blank is also a form of cued recall. I ask you the definition of ___, and you fill in the blank. What I did is that I provided you with a retrieval cue and you have to pull up the information. A third way is recognition. I show you the material and you have to recognize it. A true/false exam or a multiple-choice exam are examples of testing recognition memory. You have to recognize what is accurate and what it inaccurate. Watch this pretty amazing example of a memory champion in action. Speed Cards World Record - Simon Reinhard from Germany Factors Affecting Recall What are some factors that impact the likelihood we will be able to retrieve information? I’d like to illustrate a few. I am going to give you a list of words and I want you to remember them and write them down as soon as I say “go.” Now, click on the video link. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_memory_test_3 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. I’d like you to think about where the items you remembered occurred on the list that I gave you. Were they in the beginning, the middle, the end? I’d bet that for most of you, items at the beginning of the list and ones at the end were more likely to be remembered. This is what we call the serial position effect. Basically, the serial position effect is the idea that where an item occurs in a list is important and will determine the likelihood that item is remembered. The serial position effect involves two pieces. First, primacy is the idea you are more likely to remember items at the beginning of the list. How many of you used maintenance rehearsal to try to remember the items? If so, the items at the beginning got the most rehearsal, and so you are more likely to enter those into your long-term memory. Second, recency is the idea that the items you heard last are more likely to be remembered. These items are still sort of hanging out in your short-term memory, so you are more likely to remember them. The serial position effect suggests that where an item occurs in a list is going to impact your likelihood to remember it. How about an example? Let’s say that I am driving home from work, and my husband calls me because he wants me to pick up some items from the grocery; he gives me a list of 10 items over the phone. (He should send them as a text!) I am likely, as a function of the serial position effect, to bring home items 1–2 and 7–10. Oops, those other ones may be forgotten! Another factor that impacts retrieval is known as encoding specificity: when the conditions of encoding are similar to the conditions of retrieval, you are more likely to remember. Let me give you some examples of this. One is what we call the context effect. If the context in which you encoded the material is the same as the context in which you retrieve it, you are more likely to remember it. Let’s say that every time you study you sit in a certain place in the library. You are more likely to remember the material when you are back sitting in that same chair in the library in your special place than you are in other places. In fact, if you want to do better in the exam, study in the place where you’ll take the exam! Context is important and perhaps that has to do with retrieval cues—you have those cues around you from when you learned it. Harvard Psychologist Daniel Schacter on Memory Storage and Recall Another aspect of encoding specificity is state dependence. If you develop a memory in a certain physiological state, you will be more likely to retrieve that memory when in that physiological state. Let’s say that every time before you study you smoke some marijuana, so you are a little bit stoned every time you study (please, don’t!). You are going to be more likely to retrieve that information if you are again stoned at the time of the exam (again, I don’t recommend it). There is this old Charlie Chaplin movie (one of those old silent movies) where Charlie is drunk and having a wonderful conversation with a fellow; they get really chummy and are singing and enjoying one another’s company. The next morning when Charlie Chaplin has a hangover, he walks to town, sees the fellow from the previous night, and doesn’t even recognize him. But the next night, Charlie Chaplin goes out to the bar, gets drunk, sees the fellow, and says “My old friend!” This is an example of the state-dependent memory: when he was drunk, he remembered what happened when he was previously drunk, but when he was sober, he didn’t remember. Those physiological changes can influence memory. Another aspect of encoding specificity is mood dependence. If you develop a memory during a certain mood state you are more likely to retrieve it during that mood state. I have noticed this in psychiatric circumstances, with individuals who are profoundly depressed. When they are depressed, they can remember some many events from a previous depression, but when they are not depressed, they don’t remember that depressed period all that well. It’s an interesting example of mood dependent memory. Improving Memory (We Could All Use This!) How can you use what we know about human memory to be a better student? I think that’s really important. Let’s apply what we know!! Here, another memory athlete explains techniques for enhancing memory. How to use memory techniques to improve education | Boris Nikolai Konrad | TEDxDenHelder First, you need to focus attention! You need to put away your smartphones, turn off the TV, etc. Focus on the material, because you need to focus to encode accurately. How many of you listen to music while you study? Music can help you focus, BUT, have you noticed—and there has been research about this—that music that has lyrics is more distracting than music without lyrics when you study? I like to listen to classical music or jazz when I am working, because I can still focus on what I am doing and yet enjoy music. There is actually data that suggests that listening to music helps you encoding, EXCEPT when the music has lyrics. Second, you need to commit the necessary time. There is a strong correlation between practice time and performance across many activities. The night before the exam is not an adequate amount of time to study for the exam! Third, space your study sessions. There is a difference between what is called massed practice (all at once) and distributed practice (spread out over time). Let’s say that I want to learn my foreign language vocabulary. I can use massed practice: every Sunday afternoon I am going to study my vocabulary words for 7 hours. Not the best idea. I can use distributed practice: I study 7 hours over the course of the week, 1 hour a day. Distributed practice typically works better than mass practice. The worst kind of massed practice you can do is the all-nighter before the exam. Don’t do this!! Fourth, organize information. Use the natural organization in your books and lectures to help develop a schema for the material, and you can begin to put that material into that schema. Fifth, elaborate the material. Ask yourself: How does this relate to other things that I know? How does this relate to my expectations? Does it seem like something that makes sense or is it counterintuitive? Can I come up with my own examples? If you can, you’re golden. You elaborate the material in the best way that makes sense for you. Sixth, use visual imagery. The studies that have examined visual imagery as a mnemonic technique show that it really works quite well. Seventh, explain it to a friend: if you can’t explain the concept to a friend that means you probably don’t understand it yourself. Eighth, reduce interference within the topic. You may find that certain terms appear similar, yet they are different. You want to make sure that you are not getting interference within a topic. It’s not just about how things are similar, it’s also about how they are different. Ninth, counteract the serial position effect. This is an interesting one. When you are studying vocabulary, do you always start with the letter A? Don’t do that—start with an M sometimes. Start in different places, because then the start of the list and the end of the list are going to be in different places each time. Finally, when you are taking the test, use contextual cues to jog your memory. We have all had that tip-of-the-tongue experience. Mentally put yourself back in the position you were in when you first learned that information. By doing this you can use the context in which you learned the material as a retrieval cue. All of these ways are ways to make those memories last, and you want to be able to do that. There is one more thing that is super, super important—GET YOUR SLEEP. Sleep is essential for memory consolidation!! This is another important reason to forgo the all-night study session. Why Do We Forget?? Do You Keep Forgetting Things? Scientists Say This Is the Reason Why What happens when we forget? There can be a number of reasons that we forget: One is the encoding failure. If you never got it in there in the first place, you sure as heck aren’t going to remember it when you need it. A second reason is called interference—when previously learned information can get in the way of learning new information, and new information can get in the way of remembering the old. There are two different kinds of interference. One is retro-active. This is where new memory interferes with your memory of older material. The new memory sort of pushes out the old. For example, I lived at the same address in West L.A. for years, but now I can’t remember that address at all. The new information, my current address, sort if pushed that old address information out and I can’t easily remember it. You may have that experience with your old phone number. This is retro-active interference. Another type is pro-active interference. This is where old info can sometimes rear its ugly head when you are trying to remember the new information. When I go to the bank to deposit checks, I have to endorse them (put my signature on them) on the back, of course. I have lived in this part of the country since 1997 and have had a bank account at Brookline Bank, and for some reason one day I couldn’t remember my current bank account but could remember my Wells Fargo bank number from West Los Angeles—yikes! This is a perfect example of pro-active interference. That old information got in the way of my remembering my new information. Motivated forgetting. Sometimes we want to forget . . . Have you ever done something truly embarrassing? Or had an experience that was really upsetting? Sometimes we are motivated to forget. Suppression is when we actively and consciously push away a memory. You can say, “I am not going to think about that.” I do that with medical procedures. I suppress those memories, and that’s my choice (who wants to remember those?). Repression, on the other hand, is part of Sigmund Freud’s theory (we will address this later in the semester) and is unconscious. According to Freud, some thoughts, wishes, memories are so overwhelming that you hide them from yourself. You push them out of consciousness, deep into the unconscious mind, entirely out of memory. Freud would say they continue to impact your behavior in ways you are completely unaware of. So repressed memories have been a focus of interest by psychologists and others, and there are debates on whether or not they can occur. Decay theory. This is the idea that we have metabolic processes within the brain and some memories just decay over time due to these normal metabolic processes. And 100% this happens. It’s the case that some metabolic processes sweep away memories, but, on the other hand, some memories stick around for a very long period of time. Amnesia. This is another cause of forgetting. There are two kinds of amnesia: Retrograde amnesia is forgetting the past. It has been fodder for some really dumb (and some good) movies—the protagonist gets hit on the head and now has no idea who they are and no memory of their past. It can happen, but maybe this notion of amnesia is really not the most common type of amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is more common—you have trouble remembering new information. That is what happens when people begin to show symptoms of dementia. They don’t have retrograde amnesia —they can often remember long-distant events from their lives. However, they can’t find the keys or glasses, remember to turn off the stove, recall what they had for lunch or where they are supposed to meet someone, etc. Eventually when dementias (like Alzheimer’s) get very far along, individuals also develop retrograde amnesia, but for a long time they predominantly have anterograde amnesia. It’s the new information that they are unable to hold onto. Anterograde amnesia is forgetting the NOW. cover of the book, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat Although Dr. Oliver Sacks died a few years ago, during his amazing life he wrote some fascinating books. One was titled, The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Hat. It contains very interesting stories of people with very severe memory impairments, visual impairments, and people with all kinds of diseases of the brain that result in fascinating behavior. He gives an example in his book of a man who he calls the Lost Mariner. This was a guy who was in the navy during World War II and was a patient during the 1960s in the long-term hospital where Sacks worked. This individual was a heavy drinker of alcohol and, as a result of many years of heavy drinking, developed something called Korsakoff syndrome, which is characterized by severe anterograde amnesia. This gentleman awoke one morning and believed that it was still 1945 and the war was still going on. He could remember nothing after 1945; although he was still alive, his remembered life ended there. Every morning Sacks came in to talk to him and the guy had no idea who Sacks was and reintroduced himself; this happened daily. Once Sacks asked him how old he was and he responded that he was 19 years old. Sacks showed him a mirror and the guy freaked out—in his mind he was still this 19-year-old guy, but in the mirror he looked like a much older man. As soon as Sacks put the mirror away, the man forgot about it. When his brother came to visit him, the man was deeply disturbed by how old and bad the brother looked (after all, in his mind, the brother was only in his 20s). A fascinating case! In full anterograde amnesia people do not form new episodic memories, but sometimes they can form some procedural memories. In the case of the lost mariner, Sacks every day asked him if he wants to play checkers, but the man denied knowing how to play. So, Sacks taught him every day. Even though he still had no memory of ever playing checkers, his game improved over time. Clearly he’s remembered something (implicitly), but it’s a procedural memory as opposed to an episodic memory. How Long Do We Remember? "Uncontaminated" Memory Now I am going to talk about more research on memory. Herman Ebbinghaus lived a century and a half ago and studied memory. He wanted to study memory “uncontaminated by prior learning,” so he came up with long lists of nonsense syllables (three-letter combinations like NIM or MIK that have no meaning). He just wrote down pages and pages of these nonsense syllables, spent hours at a time memorizing the syllables, and then tested his memory for them. (Isn’t this so boring? But this is what he did.) He wanted to understand how long such memories would last. Based on this work, he developed the forgetting curve. This curve illustrates that most forgetting occurs very early on, with the majority occurring in the first 24 hours, and then it levels off, as in this illustration. I think this makes some sense. If you have ever taken a foreign language, a lot of forgetting of vocabulary happens in the first 24 hours (that’s part of why you have to review it again and again), but the ones that you actually learned you remember for way longer. There is this idea of the forgetting curve—a lot of forgetting occurs early on in learning and then it levels out. If you really want to learn things, you have to do it again and again and think of the serial position effect, and hopefully over time what’s remembered is increasing. But obviously there is going to be a lot of forgetting too. The Forgetting Curve The original uploader was Icez at English Wikipedia. [Public domain] How Do We Pull up Memories from Long-Term Storage? Reconstructing Memory What happens when we reconstruct memory? Memories are an active reconstructive process. Some people think memory is like a video recording, but it’s not. Memory is not a videorecorder (or audio recorder); it’s not like the little strand of memory that in the Harry Potter books the wizard Dumbledore pulls from his head and places in his “pensieve” to relive in detail. Memory is an active reconstructive process where you pull that memory back together. Every time you do this, the memory changes a little bit because of current events and new information. Errors and distortions can occur. These can happen before the memory occurs. Maybe you encoded it inaccurately, and you don’t really have a good memory of it. So that would lead to errors. These can happen after the memory occurs, when new information can change that memory. Have any of you ever had the experience of someone stealing your memory? My sister used to do this to me. She’d tell a story about something that happened to her, and it would be my experience! It made me so mad. But it’s so interesting because she probably had heard the story so many times that it started to feel so real to her that she in fact “remembered it.” The fact is that after the memory occurs and you re-tell it again and again, it changes slightly. I sometimes wonder about those old family stories we all have that we tell again and again, and how those have changed over time, and I wonder if there remains any resemblance to what actually happened. The story has been altered, messed with, and things have happened since. So, errors and distortions occur. Reconstructing Memories Schemas Memory is schema based. Let’s say that you went to a restaurant the other day, and you had a bad experience. If I asked you specifics about it, you might be able to tell me some things but not everything. If I asked you if the waitress served you water when you sat down, you might say, “Yeah of course, that always happens.” But did it happen? Or is it your schema? Your current schema is going to influence what is remembered (maybe even including some things that didn’t happen in that instance). For one thing, your current schema is going to influence what you encode—what you think is important. But it is also going to influence your reconstruction, when you put that memory back together, and your expectations for those situations are going to be included. So schemas are going to influence what is going to be remembered, but those memories can also be changed by new info. Let’s say you are going out with someone really special, and you adore this person. And then you find out this person was also seeing a good friend of yours romantically in their spare time. Now I want you to think about your memories of the relationship and how they might change. You have new information. Remember the time that this person got you that nice gift out of the blue? Oh! Instead of thinking what a nice person and considerate partner they are, you think, “Guilty!”. This new information changed everything. So, memories can be changed by new information, and they are easily distorted. We have distortion in memory because we have this new information and it alters that reconstruction. Again, you are reconstructing memories, so you are putting in the new information with the old info that was already there. So memory is a compilation of many things. Our memories are vulnerable, but they are pretty decent for basic information. We have to rely on our memories, and I think most of the time we do a pretty good job. Why Don’t We Remember Our Childhood?? Have any of you heard of childhood amnesia? This is the idea that we forget much of our early childhood. Why is that? Here are three likely contributors: Poor encoding strategies—as a child you don’t encode very well! Immature neural structures—your ability to store memories may be poor due to this important limitation. Changed environment—many of the retrieval cues that would assist your memory are no longer present. Childhood amnesia occurs because of problems in the three memory processes—encoding, storage, and retrieval. BrainStuff: Why Can't People Remember Being Born? Memory Is a Lot like Perception… I want us to circle back for a minute. I want you to think about some of the things we learned about perception and think about how they also impact memory. In perception, we are filling in the gaps—we are making hypotheses of what we are seeing based on the pieces that are there. The same is true of memory. We have little pieces, we put them together, and we make a hypothesis about what exactly happened. But sometimes we don’t have the full information, sometimes our memories are spotty, and yet we try to fill in the gaps so that we have a coherent story to tell, a coherent memory to experience. Do You Remember? Test your memory by matching the terms to their definitions. Sleep Focus on Sleep Let’s talk a little bit about consciousness. When we think about consciousness we can talk about it in a variety of ways, but I am going to focus on one aspect of consciousness—and that’s sleep. For so many years, people thought of sleep as a time of inactivity, when nothing was really going on. But two developments really changed that perspective on sleep: One was the invention of the electroencephalograph. We have talked about this briefly when we were reviewing methods for understanding brain activity, and the EEG was the thing that really helped us understand a lot more about what happens when folks sleep. So, if you are a participant in a study or for a clinical evaluation for a sleep disorder, you can go into a sleep lab and the technicians will hook you up to an EEG, let you fall asleep, and then track what is happening in your cortex during sleep. So how active is the brain? What is happening? By looking at the EEG, we can answer some of those questions. That was one important development. The second important development was the discovery of rapid eye movement sleep, or what we call REM sleep. This is a period of sleep where your brain activity seems to change and your eyes start moving very rapidly, as if you’re scanning the environment, as if you are looking at things, as if you are taking in information. It’s very interesting because REM sleep seems to be that period of sleep when dreaming occurs. So, this rapid eye movement sleep quickly became something of great interest to sleep researchers. What is REM sleep? What Happens When We Sleep? So let’s review some of what we know about sleep. . . AH, FALLING ASLEEP . . . Alright, let’s start at the beginning of the night. You have your pajamas on, climb into bed, adjust your pillow, and begin to drift off to sleep. What happens now? There are common things that frequently happen around the time of sleep onset. You may be very familiar with these kinds of things. Hypnagogic hallucinations. As you are falling asleep, you may hear sounds or see unusual visions—odd perceptual experiences. Sometimes they may sort of wake you up because they are pretty surprising. These hypnagogic hallucinations are not abnormal—they are really a common phenomenon, and although we call them hallucinations, they are in no way a sign of anything bad or disturbing. Myoclonic jerk. Another thing that happens is what we call the myoclonic jerk—you are falling asleep and suddenly your whole body jerks. That myoclonic jerk is something that happens to a lot of people and is not abnormal. What happens in your brain when you fall asleep? Well, the EEG can track your brain waves to get a sense of how active your cortex is during sleep, and there are different types of waves. There are beta waves, which are small waves we often see during waking hours. The alpha waves are longer waves, and these are more relaxed waves—so when you are there sitting, drinking your cup of tea, listening to music, you have a lot of alpha waves going. Theta waves are longer than alpha waves; delta waves even longer. For much of sleep we have a combination of different kinds of waves. When you are deeply asleep, you get this longer wave pattern on the EEG (more delta waves) and, if you are aroused from sleep, it’s going to be difficult to wake up. Sleep Stages Let’s talk about stages of sleep. You go in and out of these stages throughout a night of sleep. For each stage, I’m going to tell you about typical EEG patterns, level of arousal, body position, type of stage (true or transition), and time spent in that stage. 2-Minute Neuroscience: Stages of Sleep The Different Stages Stage 1 Your EEG reflects a combination of wave types (beta, alpha). You are drifting into sleep, yet you are still easily aroused. When you are just falling asleep and you hear a loud noise outside, you are going to wake up. Your body position is relaxed. This stage is a transition stage, as you are moving from one state of consciousness—your awake stage—to another stage—your sleep stage, where you are going to spend the next couple of hours. Stage 1 lasts from about 5 to 15 minutes. So, you are transitioning into sleep. Stage 2 Now the stage of sleep following stage 1 could be REM or could be stage 2. So, for ease of explanation, let’s start with stage 2. During this stage 2 we see these sleep spindles on the EEG—a sudden burst of activity in a certain region of the brain (reticular thalamic nucleus). Mild sounds will not arouse you during this stage of sleep; if there is a voice talking very quietly or you have music on, it’s not going to arouse you. But if there was a very loud noise or an alarm going on, you would awaken. The body position is very relaxed during this stage of sleep. It is a true sleep stage, and you are going to stay in here a while—from about 10 to 40 minutes. REM Sleep Now REM sleep can come before stage 2 sometimes. The EEG during REM looks like when you are awake with lots of low amplitude beta waves. Your level of arousal is similar to stage 2; it’s not easy to wake you during REM sleep, but you can be woken. You have very little muscle tone during this kind of sleep. Your body is really not moving much at all, and this is a true stage of sleep as it lasts for 5 to 40 minutes. The amount of REM sleep increases as your night of sleep goes on. Stage 3 You now enter stage 3 sleep. The sleep technicians begin to see more long waves on your EEG—about 20% of activity can be delta waves. It’s very difficult to arouse someone during stage 3 sleep. Your breathing is slow, your pulse is low, your body is very relaxed, and you are transitioning into the deepest stages of sleep. So, this transitional period only lasts 5 to 10 minutes. Stage 4 Sleep Here the technicians see predominantly delta waves on the EEG; about 40% are these long waves. It’s very difficult to arouse someone during stage 4 sleep. Interestingly enough, this is where sleepwalking occurs—it’s very hard to arouse someone who is a sleepwalker. It’s hard to wake them up, even though they are walking around. I remember my little sister coming into my room when I was a teenager. She looked like she was awake and said to me and my other sisters, “I am going backstage.” So, we kind of guided her gently back to her bed, said “here is the stage,” and helped her lie down. We covered her up, and that was that; we didn’t get up again until morning. It was a funny thing, but we knew better than to try to wake her up, because it is hard to wake a sleepwalker! Stage 4 is a true stage of sleep. It lasts about 20 to 40 minutes. Throughout the night you go through these stages of sleep. You go down to stage 4, you go back up, you go back down. For most people, you can go through all of these stages in about 90–120 minutes (1 1/2 to 2 hours). What about napping? It’s crucial that the nap be the right length! “Power napping,” involving a 15–20-minute nap, can be recharging. This allows you to go through stages 1–2 and feel re-energized. A longer nap (maybe 1.5 hours), where you go through all sleep cycles, can feel great. But watch out for a nap that takes you into the deeper stages right as your alarm goes off—you wake up all groggy and have a hard time getting your head straight! Now you wake up many times during the night, but you don’t really remember it. You come out of stage 1 sleep, may pick up your pillow, fluff it, lay down again, turn over, and go back to sleep. You go through the whole sleep cycle maybe four times if you get a good 8 hours of sleep. Changes in Sleep Across the Lifespan People experience changes in sleep patterns throughout their lives. When you are baby, you might be sleeping 14 hours a day—parents love that—but you also sleep in smaller patches. You sleep a couple of hours, then wake up, then they go back to sleep, etc. As you become a toddler, then a preschooler, you sleep a little less and even less as an elementary-aged child. In this culture, little children tend to go to bed early, but then they are up early with the birds as well. One of the periods of life when people need the most sleep is during the adolescent years, and, unfortunately, in this period of history in this country, adolescents are notoriously under-slept. It’s so common for them to go to bed very late, text with friends while in bed, and then need to wake up very early in the morning to go to school. Also, during the teen years, sleep cycles begins to shift: Teenagers tend to stay up later and sleep in longer. That’s why a lot of school districts in this country are moving to later start times—in order to match school hours to those adolescent sleep patterns. The total amount of sleep that adolescents need is probably around 9 hours per night, but most teens tend not to get that. It doesn’t happen, especially in high school, when teens have way too much to do in our culture. Adults typically need 8 or more hours of sleep—again, as with teens, many adults in our country are chronically under-slept. Among the elderly the need for sleep is still prominent, but elderly folks may have more trouble achieving that in a single block of uninterrupted sleep. They may also tend to spend more time in stage 2 sleep. Theories for Why We Sleep Russell Foster is a circadian neuroscientist, and his TED Talk is fascinating. Now one of the great questions of sleep researchers is: Why do we sleep?? There is more than one theory of sleep, so I am going to talk about a couple. Biological Need. There is certainly an abundance of data to suggest that that we have a powerful biological need for sleep. Effects of being under-slept. Whenever we have those periods in our lives when we are under-slept—maybe sleeping 5 to 6 hours per night—we are more likely to get ill, get headaches, have troubles with some basic daily functions, and forget things more easily. All this is evidence of our biological need for sleep. Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) is a disease that powerfully illustrates our need for sleep. FFI is a genetic disorder and it affects a very small number of families in the world. People who develop this syndrome die rather quickly. They wake up one day and they never sleep again, and within two weeks they die. Most of us are not at risk of this because it’s a very rare, genetic problem, but it really illustrates the profound need we have for sleep. It’s a biological imperative. REM rebounds. Another thing we know is that people who don’t sleep begin to experience what is called REM rebound. When you pull an all-nighter, for example, and then go to bed, you may wake up the next morning remembering that you had a very weird dream. That night you were dreaming all night because your body is going back and trying to make up for the lost REM sleep. The more you lose sleep, the more your body persistently tries to achieve REM sleep. You need REM sleep, you need that stage of sleep, and your body is going to try to make it up if you don’t have it. So, this is an example of the profound way in which we need sleep, and sleep of a particular kind. There Are Two General Theories for Sleep Restorative Theory The idea here is that during sleep important things happen that help restore your body and restore your mind. And I’ve certainly noted facts that support this idea. Indeed, during stage 4 sleep our bodies do a lot of repair, and we need that. Our metabolic processes take care of us. We also know that REM sleep seems to be essential for memory consolidation. During REM your hippocampus is hard at work consolidating memories. So mental well-being and ability are being taken care of in a lot of way during those periods of REM sleep. So, we know that sleep restores the body and mind in many ways. This is strong evidence for this restorative theory. emoji of Dr. Tompson with the words,Sleep is esential to good physical and mental health Evolutionary Theory I just love the evolutionary theory of sleep. This is the idea that our sleep patterns have evolved over millennia to support us in our activity, and these patterns vary by species (which have different evolutionary histories). When you look at different species you see very different patterns of sleep, and those patterns of sleep support our survival. They enhance survival. Here are some examples: How Patterns of Sleep Enhance Survival Think of the chipmunk—cute, destructive little beast. During the long hours of summer, the chipmunk spends many hours outside foraging, building its nest. Then in the winter months when it’s very cold and food is hard to come by, that little gal or guy goes into the burrow and hibernates—sleeps. The chipmunk’s temperature goes down, respiration goes down, demands on the physical body go down . . . all during times when it’s very difficult to live out there. So, hibernation is one example of how species’ specific sleep patterns support survival and enhance adaptation. Lions are very interesting from a sleep perspective. The male lion is one of the most elegant creatures to look at, but these guys have short, violent, brutish lives. The male lions have two jobs really—first to protect the pride and territory (from hyenas, other predators, and other male lions) and second, to mate with the females so that they have cubs. The females do the hunting, and are pretty good at it. The male lion eats first from their kills. Interestingly, when a rival lion comes in and kills the alpha male lion and takes over the pride, that new lion will often kill the cubs (whose father was the previous alpha) as well. Then when the females come into heat, he mates with them— so then he can protect his own progeny instead of some other lion’s. So, it’s kind of a gruesome thing, but . . . let’s return to sleep. The male lion expends a tremendous amount of energy in his daily activities. So, in his off hours, which are most hours, he does a lot of sleeping. Male lions can sleep up to 20 hours a day. Imagine, you sleep 20 hours a day, get up, mate a little, eat some food, kill another rival (or scare him off), intimidate some hyenas, and go back to bed. Now, this big male can sleep as much as he wants because no one is going to mess with him. So, he is lying under an acacia tree, and life is good for that moment. He sleeps A LOT. How about herd animals? Consider the gazelles. They don’t sleep a whole lot, and when they sleep, they generally do so standing up. They sleep lightly and in short bursts. They maybe sleep 4 hours a day. And part of this is adaptation. If you lie down for a deep sleep, and a hyena comes over, you are lunch. So, it enhances your adaptation, your survival, if you are standing there, sort of sleeping, and then you can just jump and run. You wake up very fast and are able to respond very quickly—you survive. How about birds? You know the owl sleeps during the day. Owls have incredible night vision, and during the day they don’t have a huge hunting advantage. But at night they are top predators. Their feathers are constructed to allow for almost silent flight and they have wonderful night vision. The little creatures they are hunting have no advantages at night, and the owls are able to hunt very effectively. On the other hand, the same kind of ecosystems that support the owl during the night support the hawk during the day. It has incredible vision during the day, can hunt from very high up, and strikes its prey very quickly. Its prey is awake and about during the day, and the hawk sleeps at night. You can see how these patterns of sleep have evolved to support the animals’ adaptation over many millennia. As human beings, we have pretty poor vision during the night, but we are pretty good during the day. Our sleep patterns (during the dark night hours), like that of other primates including chimpanzees, have evolved to support our needs and to enhance our adaptation. So, the evolutionary theory really underscores those differences. Sleep Problems Now, what happens when sleep doesn’t go well? How many of you have ever experienced a night of insomnia? What are some of the causes of sleep problems? picutres of ducks being sleepy doing things during the day and then being wiede-awake at night Fowl Language Comics by Brian Gordon Medical conditions. Diabetes, blood pressure problems, chronic pain, and a variety of other medical challenges can interrupt sleep. There are lots of mental health problems that interrupt sleep. For example, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety can really interfere with sleep. Drugs. Many can interfere with sleep. Caffeine, for example. Have you ever had a cup of coffee too late in the afternoon and then you weren’t able to sleep all night? Another example of a drug that interferes with sleep is cocaine. Cocaine is a stimulant, it makes people feel pretty good, and it gives them a lot of energy. People who are using a lot of cocaine may go for days with very little sleep—their brain is awash in neurochemicals, they are full of energy, and they are not sleeping. There are a number of drugs that can disrupt your sleep cycle. There are also certain drugs that are made to help you sleep. Some of these help you fall asleep, but they disrupt your sleep architecture (the stages) and, in the end, you wake up in the morning and you don’t feel like you slept well. It is an interesting example of how there are a number of processes involved with sleep, and we have to get them all right. Brain damage. There are certain kinds of brain damage that can lead to problems with sleep.I remember when I was working at Children’s Hospital, there was a kid who had brain damage. He would sleep no more than 6 hours a night and his parents were exhausted. One would go to bed early and get up early; the other would go to bed later and sleep later—that way they could tag-team to take care of their youngster. Inappropriate conditioning is the cause of the vast majority of sleep problems. Classical conditioning is very important in sleep, as you associate certain circumstances with sleep. Think about what you do when you go to bed. Many people have a little ritual before going to bed. That ritual prepares you for sleep and you begin to associate all kinds of things with sleep. Maybe you have a warm cup of milk that preps you for sleep, and you get used to that. If you don’t have your cup of milk, it’s hard to fall asleep. People are more likely to sleep better in their own bed because of classical conditioning. My husband, for example, likes to go to sleep with music—and I can’t go to sleep with music. So, if we go to bed at the same time we listen to music and the moment he falls asleep, I go and turn it off. Many people have a favorite pillow or blanket or stuffed animal—those are things that help us go to sleep. So sometimes what is happening when people are having sleep problems is that the things that they are conditioned to sleep with are not there. Imagine if you enter stage 1 sleep in the middle of the night and someone stole your pillow. You’d wake up and you’d have a hard time trying to fall back asleep because the conditions under which you fall asleep have changed. Click on the video below and I’ll describe a real sleep challenge! cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod3_sleep_conditioning video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Sleep Disorders This seems like a nice segue into sleep disorders. Let’s talk about two types of general classes of sleep disorders: dyssomnias and parasomnias. Dyssomnias are problems in the quality, amount, or timing of sleep. I am going to mention two of these. Narcolepsy. In narcolepsy, people suddenly experience an overwhelming need to sleep. Their muscle tone goes, and they might fall asleep at very inappropriate times, which is very bad if you are driving. People who have narcolepsy may fall asleep very suddenly during the middle of the day. They have this overwhelming need to sleep. Now narcolepsy is fairly rare, thankfully, and it can be treated with drugs, and also with some kinds of classical conditioning interventions. Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder. Now this next one is not so rare, and some of you have probably had it. If you have ever traveled internationally you probably have experienced jetlag. Jetlag is not a disorder; it’s a natural thing that happens, but it can lead to circadian rhythm sleep disorder. In this disorder your biological sleep pattern does not match the needs of the environment. So, if you fly to Australia, you are going to be up at 2:00 a.m. reading magazines, watching TV, or doing other things. You are still on U.S. time, so in Australia you are going to be awake in the middle of the night and sleeping in the middle of the day. Your sleep pattern doesn’t match the Australian clock. This can be corrected over time—this is what usually happens with jetlag, and it resolves in several days. Little Johnny Let me tell you a story of a kid that I saw at Children’s Hospital who had very bad circadian rhythm sleep disorder. He came in to see me, he was on my schedule, so I walked out into the waiting room and called his name: “Little Johnny!” He stood up, and Little Johnny was 13 years old, 6 ft 6 in tall, and 280 pounds. Wow! Turns out this poor boy had severe depression and with it he had what’s known as complete circadian reversal—his sleep-wake pattern was completely flipped. At 10:00 p.m. he would start to go to sleep; even though he couldn’t sleep, he would keep trying; and then finally at about 6:00 a.m. he would fall asleep. He’d miss school, of course, because he would sleep from 6:00 a.m. to about 2:00 in the afternoon. He would get up at 2:00 p.m., watch a little TV, try to catch up on homework, and then at 10:00 pm he would try again to go to sleep. The same pattern happened each night. It was awful—it made it impossible to function in his life. We needed to treat his depression and also address his sleep problem. Unfortunately, he was trying to go to sleep when he was not tired. It’s very hard to fall asleep when you are not tired at all. One way to treat it is to shift to bed LATER, rather earlier. Here’s the idea: instead of trying to go to bed at 10:00 p.m., Johnny should try to stay up until 8:00 a.m.—which is really hard, because he will be really tired by then. He should do this for a couple of nights. Now the next night he should stay up until 10:00 a.m. Then we are going to move him to a 12:00 noon bedtime, then to 2:00 p.m., 4:00 p.m., 6:00 p.m., 8:00 p.m. At 10:00 p.m., he stops! This is where he should stay. It can take a week or so, but it works. You can make yourself stay up a little longer, but it is really hard to make yourself go to bed earlier if you are not tired. Circadian rhythm sleep disorder can occur for lots of reasons. One of the worst work schedules is the third or night shift. Shift workers work in factories, hospitals, etc. That third shift is 11:00 p.m.–7:00 a.m. It’s the worst. In hospitals, more medical mistakes get made on the night shift than on all the other shifts because people are not functioning optimally. That’s when people screw up most—when industrial accidents occur, when people get injured the most, etc. Our nature is to be awake during the day. This night shift is not natural for us. To make it worse, the shift worker wants to be a normal person on the weekends (who wouldn’t?) and so he/she tries to shift back into what most of us experience—being awake during the day—and that’s really hard. These are the people who can get serious circadian rhythm sleep disorders. Again, this is a dyssomnia—a problem with the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Parasomnias. I would define parasomnias as weird stuff that happens during sleep. They are odd happenings. One is the sleepwalking disorder. Sleepwalkers get up in the night, may eat, wake up in the morning, find empty cereal bowls on the counter, and have no memory of having eaten during the night. People will often assume that this must be during REM sleep, but that’s not true. When you are dreaming, the body cannot move, and that’s a good thing (we don’t get up and act out our dream). Sleepwalking takes place in stage 4 sleep, in the deepest phase of sleep. You get up and you wander around the house. What amazes me is that people don’t fall down the stairs while they are sleepwalking, and I think this speaks to the level of automatic processing we do around space. You walk through the house and your body knows what it is doing even though you have no awareness of it. Sleep terror disorder. The person who has sleep terror disorder is also in stage 4 sleep and they may sit up very suddenly and start screaming, and they appear to be terrified. My daughter had this. She was about 3 years old, and I remember it so well. She seemed to be tossing in her bed, and I went to her and I asked her if she was okay and she turned around, looked at me (eyes wide open) and started screaming at the top of her lungs. I was terrified! She was staring straight at me—well, really through me, didn’t seem to see me at all, and kept screaming, “I don’t want to drink the milk!” My husband comes in, grabs her, and puts her on a big bed. We are dodging around her trying to make sure she doesn’t fling herself off and break her leg. I was in a panic and thought she was having a seizure! So I called the pediatrician, at midnight, and the pediatrician says to me (in quite an irritated voice) that she is not having a seizure, as people never scream during seizures. Then, she tells me that I just need to make her stop throwing a tantrum. After about 45 minutes of screaming, my child suddenly wakes up and says, “Hi Mommy, can I have some milk?”—I just about fainted. She’d had a sleep terror. You can understand how people in ancient times might have thought of these as incidents of demon possessions! She was 3 years old, had a couple other sleep terrors in the next year, and experienced no more (thankfully) after age 4 years old. This is usually how these things go—sleep terrors are not terribly uncommon in childhood. Part of what is happening here with sleep terrors in childhood is that the brain is developing and some of those pathways controlling sleep might not be completely formed. Watch Psychiatry – Sleep Disorders: By Elliott Lee M.D. at youtube.com Dreaming Speaking of events during sleep . . .What happens with dreaming? What do we dream about? surreal image of a book floating in the sky Image by Rogier Hoekstra from Pixabay A study done about 20 years ago compared Japanese college students to American college students. The study asked them what they dream about, and some of these things may be very familiar to you. The top items were being attacked or pursued. Another one is trying again and again to do something. School, teaching, studying are other things that were dreamt. Being frozen with fright is another common one, and it seems like the Japanese students reported it slightly more than the American students’ sexual experiences: only two-thirds of the people reported this, and the other third was probably lying (just joking). Arriving too late is another one, like missing a plane. Dead people appearing as if they were alive is one. A loved person being dead is one—this doesn’t mean you want them dead. Falling, failing an exam, flying through the air, being unable to breathe, seeing oneself being dead, being nude—all were common. When do we remember our dreams? Some people report that they do not dream; other people can remember many dreams. But truth told, we all dream. When are we most likely to remember them? If you are awakened during the dream, you are much more likely to remember it. Also, you are more likely to remember the dream if it is vivid, bizarre, or emotionally intense and/or you are not distracted upon waking. Now, if you really want to start to remember your dreams, you need to keep a notebook or an audio recorder beside your bed. When you wake up, you record your memory right away. Even as you begin to record your dream, the memory is fading. We are not good at consolidating memories of our dreams, so we tend not to remember them. That’s why some people think they don’t dream. We all have dreams, but many of us just don’t remember them. What is the significance of dreaming? Why do we dream? Here are two dream theories: Two Dream Theories Psychoanalytic theory The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, whose theory we will review later in the semester, believed that our dreams are symbolic or disguised expressions of unconscious wishes. Freud focused a lot on the unconscious. He said that we are not aware of what is happening deep within ourselves—in the unconscious mind—but it influences our behavior in lots of ways. One of the ways our unconscious expresses itself is in dreams; Freud believed dream interpretation could reveal the unconscious mind. I am not a big fan of this theory about dreams, and I think there is a better theory. Activation-synthesis theory of dreams This theory was proposed by J. Allan Hobson. According to this theory, when you go to bed, certain neurocircuits are still activated from the day. While you are asleep you also have random activations of other neural circuits. What we try to do in perception, in memory, in so many other ways, is to try to make sense of the complex stimuli in the world that we live in. What your brain does during sleep is to take information from these activated circuits and try to make sense of them by weaving them into a story. So, you had this random activation of a memory of your third-grade teacher, you remembered today that you have an exam coming up, and suddenly you had a dream that your third-grade teacher is sitting next to you during the exam, etc. You have these little random activations of circuits in the cortex and memories still activated from the day, and you put them together into this weird story. That’s what Hobson says. It’s activation of neurocircuits and synthesis into a new story. Practical Advice Based on Research Here is some practical advice based on what we know about sleep: 1) you probably need more of it; 2) you need to have it on a schedule (you do best with sleep when you have predictable sleep); 3) you need a ritual—a classically conditioned experience; 4) memory and physiological functioning are all improved by sleep. Go to bed right on time tonight and snooze away!! Sweet dreams!! tips for sleeping Source: National Institute for Aging Do You Remember? Test your memory by matching the terms to their definitions. Review and Reflect Module 4 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 4: The Level of Intimate Social Interactions: Development Monday, June 3 – Sunday, June 9 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 8–9 (Pages 322–361; 364–372; 386-397) Module 4 online content View this video: Social Media Dangers Documentary — Childhood 2.0 [Video]. Youtube. Note: There some difficult topics here – child abuse, suicide, etc. Discussions: Module 4 Discussion Initial responses due Thursday, June 6, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, June 9, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, June 11, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: Film Response worksheet 3 due Sunday, June 9, 5:00 PM ET Live Classrooms: Monday, June 3, 7:30–9:00 PM ET Activity: Complete Module 4 Review and Reflect, due Monday, June 10, 11:59 PM ET Welcome to Module 4 cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod4 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Learning Objectives List two major themes/debates in developmental psychology and give an example of each. Describe stages in prenatal development. Describe Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Describe and give examples of Kohlberg’s Theory of moral development. Describe how “attachment” between infants and caregivers is measured and why it is important. List milestones in language development and how the environment supports language development. Compare cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs and give examples. Developmental Psychology This branch of psychology is focued on how people change physically, mentally, and socially over the course of their life span. At each period of the lifespan, developmental psychologists study numerous factors at all of the levels that I introduced the first day of class, including biological, psychological, small intimate interactions, the larger social context, and culture. major themes of developmental psychology Major Themes in Developmental Psychology A number of major themes recur in the study of developmental psychology, and I outline these below. Basic Developmental Stages The first important theme is the idea that individuals go through basic developmental stages. I’m going to introduce several stage theories. According to stage theories, individuals go through various periods of development referred to as stages. At each stage, development is not only quantitatively different (that is to say, there is more of something, like vocabulary increases in language development) but also qualitatively different (that is to say, one goes about things in a completely different way—not just “more” but also “different”). At each stage, the individual is very different in kind. The idea of stages has a number of implications: Implications of Stages Stages are roughly defined by age, although a certain amount of variability exists between individuals. There are also sudden stage-related changes. We will talk about this when we talk about cognitive development and language development. Although there is definitely evidence for stages of development, much of our physical, mental, and social development occurs gradually, unfolding over time. There also may be critical periods in development. Critical periods are times in which a certain developmental event or task must take place. If it doesn’t happen at that critical period, it will never happen normally. There are also sensitive periods where it is best to accomplish this developmental task, but it is still possible at other times. A good example of this is with second language learning. A second language is most easily learned during childhood, although, with a lot of work, it can be learned later. Childhood is a sensitive period for the learning of a new language. Nature versus Nurture The second important theme is nature versus nurture. This is an old debate about how much of a person’s personality, capabilities, and other characteristics are determined by nature (genetics, what we bring into the world when we are born) and nurture (the way in which the environment supports or doesn’t support our development). Now the truth is, both are obviously very important. What we are most often interested in understanding is the interaction between nature and nurture. So let’s begin looking at development from the time of conception, through the prenatal period and into infancy. How does the young child become who he or she is? Genetic Contributions In recent years our understanding of genetic contributions to all sorts of behavioral characteristics has exploded. Research has examined genetic contributions to intelligence, emotional stability, mental health disorders, personality, etc. Behavioral genetics, combines genetics and psychology and helps us to understand the kinds of behavioral characteristics that are transmitted genetically from parent to child. So let’s go through some of the basics. Many of you, probably most of you, have taken biology. chromosome, dna, and the cell itself You know that our chromosomes are long threadlike structures that look a bit like a twisting ladder and are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and carries genetic instructions in the cells of our body. The gene is a basic unit of heredity, and genes direct the development of particular kinds of characteristics, including some behavioral characteristics. Now I’m not going to cover the entire biology of genetics here, but I do want to think about how it applies to behavioral characteristics. As you are aware, at conception your biological mother contributes 23 chromosomes, and your biological father contributes 23 chromosomes; this new combination makes the unique you. Your new chromosomes contain approximately 24,000 genes. Although some genes have direct effects, and I’ll talk about some examples of that in a minute, most traits are “polygenetic” or influenced by more than one gene (e.g., our height is influenced by at least four genes). Some simple traits, such as eye color (light or dark), are determined by a single gene. I like to define a couple of additional terms. First, your genotype describes your underlying genetic makeup and it may include genetic instructions for traits that are never actually displayed (the gene is turned off). Second, your phenotype refers to the observable traits or characteristics, and it is determined by the interaction between genes and the environment. Let me give you an example. Do you have freckles? Well freckles are caused by a gene, but this gene will only display itself under certain circumstances. If you have the freckles gene and you are exposed to sunlight, you will develop freckles. But think about rich white women on plantations in the South during the Antebellum era. These women really had no jobs at all (after all, they were completely taken care of by slaves), and having extremely white creamy skin was considered the height of beauty. These women would carry parasols or wear hats and long sleeves—all to avoid too much contact with the sun. Did some of them have the freckles gene? Who knows! On the other hand, if you have the freckles gene today you are more likely to display it, as most of us are going around in short sleeves during the summer and warming ourselves in the sun (ah!). There has to be an interaction between genetics (the freckles gene on the genome) and the environment (the sunlight) for that trait to be displayed in the phenotype. Third is the idea of a dominant gene. You get one gene (called an allele) from your biological mother and one from your biological father. Dominant genes are those that will display themselves if even one allele is present. You only have to have one dominant gene in order for the trait to be evident. For example, curly hair is a dominant trait. If you got the straight hair gene from your biological mother and the curly hair gene from your biological father, you’re likely to have curly hair. Fourth is the recessive gene. A recessive gene contains genetic instructions that will only be expressed if the individual has TWO recessive alleles (one from each biological parent). On the next set of slides, I give you the example of tongue rolling, so let’s go through these… person rolling her tongue Odokuma, E.I., Eghworo, O., Avwioro, G.O., & Agbedia, U. (2008). Tongue Rolling and Tongue Folding Traits in an African Population Rasgos de Lengua Enrollada y Lengua Doblada en una Población Africana. Do you see the image on this slide? This is tongue rolling. Some of you can do it and some of you can’t. I really don’t think it’s a great virtue, so if you can’t do it don’t feel bad! Apparently, the ability to roll one’s tongue is determined by one dominant gene. Can you believe that? If you look at the table below, you can see how it works. Along the top row is the genotype. We refer to a genotype as “homozygous” when both biological parents contribute the same type of gene/allele (dominant or recessive). We refer to a genotype as “heterozygous” when each biological parent contributes a different type of gene (one dominant, one recessive). Genotype Homozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Homozygous Parental Alleles Mother: Tongue rolling Father: Tongue rolling Mother: Tongue rolling Father: Non-Tongue rolling Mother: Non-Tongue rolling Father: Tongue rolling Mother: Non-Tongue rolling Father: Non-Tongue rolling Phenotype Tongue rolling Tongue rolling Tongue rolling Non-tongue rolling So let’s go through it; remember you only have to have one dominant gene for the trait to be expressed in your phenotype. So, in the first case you are homozygous for the dominant tongue-rolling gene as both your parents gave you a dominant gene for this trait. So your phenotype is positive for tongue rolling. (Isn’t this exciting?) In the next case, your mother had the dominant tongue-rolling gene, but your father gave you a recessive “non-tongue-rolling” gene. You are still a tongue roller, but your genotype is heterozygous! In the next case your mother had the recessive non-tongue-rolling gene, but your father gave you a dominant tongue-rolling gene. So, again, you are heterozygous, but you are a tongue roller (you have one dominant gene). In the last case, both of your parents gave you the recessive non-tongue-rolling gene. You are homozygous for the tongue-rolling gene and you cannot do tongue rolling. But wait! It turns out that tongue rolling is not entirely genetic! You can still learn the skill. But, why bother? Other Examples of Recessive Traits Susceptibility to poison ivy (oh I hope you aren’t homozygous for that one; I unfortunately am!), straight hair, and some diseases (examples include sickle cell disease and phenylketonuria or PKU) are examples of recessive traits. Now, your sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans. They determine your biological sex (gender is a separate issue, as it speaks to one’s identity and not to a biological characteristic). Instructions on these genes direct the development of your gonads in utero (among other things). This gets us to the topic of sex-linked recessive characteristics. Females have two large X chromosomes for the 23rd pair—one from their biological mother and one from their biological father. Males have one large X chromosome for the 23rd pair (from their biological mother) and one smaller Y chromosome (from their biological father). There are more genes on the X chromosome than on the Y chromosome. If you think about it, the Y chromosome, shaped like a Y, is missing a whole leg of potential genes. So any genes for recessive traits on that leg of the X chromosome 23 will be displayed (there is no other gene to contradict them). This is why men are more likely to have these sex-linked characteristics, as they are caused by recessive genes on chromosome 23. Examples of sex-linked traits include colorblindness, hemophilia, and male pattern baldness. For a woman to have any of these characteristics she would have to have genes from both biological parents that were recessive for these traits (not common). Autosomes and the sex chromosomes Source: National Human Genome Research Institute cas_ps101_19_su2_sex_chromosome video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. The human genome project identified all estimated genes on our human chromosomes. Although we know where they are, we don’t know what they all do. But let me point out a few that are particularly interesting. Alzheimer’s disease. There are some forms of Alzheimer’s disease, particularly those with very early onset, that are genetically determined. You can actually take a genetic test to see if you will have this early onset form of Alzheimer’s disease (although it is usually only recommended if it runs in your family). There are other forms of Alzheimer’s disease that may be partially genetically determined (risk genes). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS results in progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal cord, leading to paralysis. Some forms of ALS (maybe 5 to 10%) are caused by familial transmitted genetic mutations. Huntington’s disease is a particularly interesting example of a genetically transmitted disease. The Huntington’s gene is a dominant one and if you have the gene you will develop the disease. The disease usually begins to show symptoms during a person’s 40s, although it can onset earlier in some people. The story of how the Huntington’s gene was discovered is a fascinating one and I encourage you to read more about it. But we will move along to a few other topics. Source: National Human Genome Research Institute Another example of a genetically determined medical condition is Down’s syndrome. In this syndrome individuals typically have mild intellectual disabilities, short stature, and a distinctive appearance. Down’s syndrome is not “inherited” but rather a defect that occurs during meiosis when egg and sperm come together to form a new genetic being. In the case of Down’s syndrome, the process results in what is called a trisomy on the 21st chromosome. Instead of two chromosomes there are three (thus a trisomy). As we learn more about the human genome and its potential impact on behavioral health, risk of disease, and other outcomes, families face many difficult decisions. If you could get a genetic test that would tell you 100% that you would get a terrible disease in your 40s and there was no treatment, would you want to take the test? What happens if your health insurer or employer finds out? Lots of difficult questions!! Ok, so having reviewed some basic information on genetics, let’s talk about how the baby develops physically before and after birth. Physical Development From the time the egg and the sperm get together and continuing throughout childhood, we see huge changes in physical development in a short period of time. Prenatal Let’s focus first on the prenatal stage, that is the stage of development before the baby is born. The prenatal stage is divided into three periods. The first period of prenatal development is known as the germinal period, and it lasts for approximately two weeks. We refer to the developing organism as a germ or zygote. Two major developments occur during this time. First, the cells of the zygote rapidly divide, expanding in size. Second, the zygote implants in the lining of the uterus, where it will grow and develop for the next nine months. Germinal Period Source: Human Development The second period of prenatal development is known as the embryonic period, and it lasts from approximately week 3 through week 8. A number of important events begin to unfold during this period. First, cell growth accelerates and cells begin to differentiate, with those that will become heart cells becoming different from those that will become skin cells or bone cells, etc. The organs and major systems of the body form, and genes on our sex chromosomes (chromosome 23) trigger the initial development of the sexual organs. Second, the amniotic sac where the baby will float for the next nine months develops, as does the umbilical cord that will transmit vital nutrients to the baby and will carry away waste. Third, the baby becomes increasingly vulnerable to the impact of teratogens, which are harmful substances that can cause defects in the developing embryo (and later the fetus). Source: Carnegire Collection of Embryos Here are some examples of teratogens: Radiation. For the women in the class, you’ve probably been asked before you’ve had your dental X-rays whether or not you were pregnant. This is because radiation is a teratogen. If you are pregnant and need to get X-rays, you probably should wait until after the baby is delivered. Toxic industrial chemicals. Let’s face it, mercury, PCBs, and other toxic industrial chemicals probably aren’t good for any of us, but they are particularly bad for the developing baby. It’s important to avoid exposure to these during pregnancy. Certain diseases. Rubella, syphilis, AIDS, and many others can have a very negative impact on the development of the baby. This is one of the reasons that it is particularly important for pregnant women to take good care of their health, get prenatal care, and avoid exposure to diseases. We will get into other examples of this later in the semester when we talk about mental illness. The impact of any particular teratogen will depend on many factors, including timing (when during pregnancy the exposure occurs), maternal health, maternal age, and nutrition. I want you to look at the next slide, but don’t panic! There’s a lot of information here, but I only need for you to take away two important points. fetal development Source: Researchgate The first point is that different organ systems develop at different times and therefore may be most vulnerable at different times during prenatal development. For example, the heart is developing during approximately weeks 7 to 8, and it is during this period that it is most vulnerable to the impact of teratogens that affect cardiac development. The second point to notice is that the development of the central nervous system occurs over a long period of time, making it vulnerable to the impact of teratogens throughout much of gestation. Drugs. It is very important for a pregnant woman to talk to her doctor before taking drugs, either illicit drugs, over-the-counter drugs, or prescription drugs. Interestingly one of the drugs that has a particularly negative impact on the developing baby is alcohol. Many people would speculate that heroin or cocaine would be far worse (after all, they are illegal!), but alcohol is very bad. Numerous studies suggest that alcohol exposure is one of the main causes of birth defects in children. Nowadays pregnant women are cautioned against using any alcohol (having any alcoholic beverages at all) during pregnancy. As a person who very much enjoys wine, I would still suggest that any woman put that bottle away in a safe place and enjoy it after the baby is born. Additionally, if a woman is breast-feeding, it’s best to avoid alcohol (and other drugs) for that time as well, as those substances can enter breast milk and impact the infant. The third period of prenatal development is known as the fetal period. At this point we refer to the developing child as a fetus. The fetal period extends from week 8 until the baby is born at approximately 40 weeks. The fetus is rapidly developing and gaining in size and ability. By the end of the 3rd month, the fetus can move its arms, legs, mouth, and head. It’s interesting to me that when my mother was pregnant (in the 1960s), doctors, pregnant women, and their partners had little idea about what the baby might be like until he or she arrived. Now, using sonograms, you can get a very good picture of how the baby is developing. It’s fascinating to look at a sonogram and realize that the baby is actually sucking her thumb in utero! During the 4th month, mothers began to experience what is known as quickening, that is, the movements of the baby. At first the mother may begin to think that she is having a bad tummy episode (maybe thinking that she had a dinner that was a bit too spicy), but it’s that baby moving! By the end of the 5th month, most of the brain cells are already in place, although they will continue to develop until birth and certainly thereafter. By the end of the 6th month, the baby’s brain activity is similar to that of a newborn baby. During the final few months of development in utero the baby is putting on weight and the lungs are continuing to develop, as the baby is preparing to live outside the uterus. Newborn Now that we’ve talked about prenatal development, let’s talk about what happens when the baby arrives. The new baby comes into the world well-prepared. Now, many people when they see a newborn may think that baby is a fairly incompetent individual, but I’m telling you that that is not the case! I would argue that that baby is ready to do what is needed to thrive. This newborn is competent! So what does the newborn need to do to survive? Two main things: gain weight and connect with the supportive social world around her. The newborn comes into the world with the skills that allow her to do this. What are these skills? Reflexes. The baby has a number of reflexes that contribute to her survival. First, they have the rooting reflex. If you brush a baby’s cheek with your finger, the baby will turn their head toward your hand and open their mouth. That newborn is ready to feed. Think of this: the mother’s breast brushes across the infant’s cheek, and the infant turns their head and is ready to breastfeed. This rooting reflex is there. Second, they have the sucking reflex. If you put your finger on the baby’s lips, they will begin to suck. Again, ready to be fed. So that baby is ready to gain weight. Third, and interestingly, the newborn has the grasping reflex. An infant can hold her weight with her grasp. That’s pretty amazing. This grasping reflex may be evolutionarily quite old. Think of other primates. When the chimpanzee baby is born, it needs to hold on to its mother as she swings from tree to tree. That grasping reflex is essential to his survival, so perhaps the grasping reflex is an old one from an evolutionary standpoint, one that we had when the baby still needed to really hold on. Of course now we have car seats, and baby carriers, and strollers, so perhaps the grasping reflex doesn’t have quite the same value as it once might have had. Social attunement. Interestingly, the newborn is able to differentiate between their mother and other human beings by both voice tone and scent. The baby is prepared to make that crucial social connection. Although vision is the least developed sense at birth (indeed, the newborn is legally blind), the baby is able to see well from about 6 to 12 inches. This is the perfect distance for the baby to make eye contact while breastfeeding or taking a bottle! And so the relationship begins. Finally, babies are drawn to human voices; they are capable again of making those human connections that are so important to their survival. Infancy The first two years of life are called infancy. During this time, there are rapid and dramatic changes on many fronts. Physical Development in Infancy So what’s happening early on to that newborn baby? Well, at birth the newborn’s brain is approximately 25% of its adult weight. In contrast, the baby’s total weight is about 5% of its adult weight. The baby has a very heavy head! The baby’s brain has almost all of the neurons it will ever have. However, the connectivity of the human brain increases radically in the first two years of life, particularly, as the number of dendrites increases and the axons of many of the neurons acquire myelin. Major Milestones in Motor Development Motor Milestone Mean Age (when 50% of infants have achived milestone) Lifts head 90 degrees while on stomach 2.2 months Rolls over 2.8 months Sits with support 2.9 months Sits without support 5.5 months Stands with support 5.8 months Crawls with support 7.0 months Walks with support/cruises 9.2months Stands independently 11.5 months Walks independently 12.1 months Walks up steps 17.0 months Kicks ball forward 20.80months Monk, Catherine & Hane, Amie. (2014). Fetal and Infant Brain–Behavior Development: Milestones & Environmental Influences. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199778072.013.20. What are some of the major milestones of physical development? First, the baby can lift his or her head at about 2 months of age. Second, the baby can begin to roll over at about two and a half months of age. Be careful not to leave that baby alone on a bed! By about 3 months the baby can sit up if propped up by pillows. By about 6 months of age the baby can sit on his or her own. You can tell how long the baby has been sitting by how adept they are at sitting. A very new sitter will look unstable and will fall over easily if he or she reaches for something. The experienced sitter can turn and reach and do all sorts of activities while sitting. By about six and a half months the child can stand holding on. Interestingly, as a child is developing these skills, he may become distracted from other developmental tasks. For example, the child who was sleeping through the night may stop doing so when he begins to walk or engage in other physical activities. He may not eat as readily. It’s hard to do all those other things when your focus is on walking! I remember when my son was first able to pull up and stand in his crib. He would spend so much time standing up, but then would start to cry because he couldn’t get down! We would then go in and help him down, and he would of course pull himself back up—he was so proud of himself. By about nine months, the child can begin to walk holding on, or what we call cruising. It’s amazing how far a child can get by holding onto a table while walking then moving gently to a nearby chair and then to a sofa. By about one year, children are often taking their first steps and walking. They then learn to walk backward, to walk upstairs, to kick a ball, and to do all sorts of other physical feats. It’s amazing to think that in those first two years they go from being unable to hold up their own heads to being able to run through the house. One thing I want to note is that there is variability in when children achieve these developmental accomplishments. Some children are early walkers and some are late walkers. When a child begins to walk tells you very little about their athletic skill or anything else. It’s just a developmental difference and probably not very important. Now you may have noticed one milestone that I never mentioned. Can you think of what it might be? Well, it’s crawling. Now the reason I didn’t mention it is because it’s not really a milestone. It’s not necessary. Some babies crawl and some don’t. Sometimes the ones who are very good at crawling may begin to walk a little bit later; after all, if you are getting around just fine by crawling, what’s the point of trying to walk? It’s funny to watch infants crawling—some creep along on all fours, some do a crabwalk on one side—they all are different. I remember my own son the first time he tried to crawl toward an object that he really wanted—he ended up going backward! Boy was that frustrating. Finally, I’d like you to remember two TRENDS in development. First there’s the cephalocaudal trend. Cephalo means head; caudal means tail. So the cephalocaudal trend is from head to tail. Physical development in utero proceeds this way, as does physical skill in infancy. In utero the head develops and then development continues downward toward the feet; in physical skill the child first learns to lift her head, then control her trunk (rolling over and sitting up), then walk. In each case it goes from head to “tail.” Second, there’s the proximodistal trend. Proximo means close; distal means far. In utero, the trunk and limbs develop first then the fingers and toes; in physical skill, the child begins to gain control over the trunk, then arms and legs, then hands and fingers—gross motor control (proximo) and is followed by fine motor control (distal). Social and Personality Development As noted earlier, forming social relationships and emotional bonds with caregivers is crucial to infants’ development, and this process starts on day one. Let’s talk about what infants bring into the world with them when they arrive and how those relationships with caregivers develop. Temperament Babies have inborn characteristics or predispositions to behave and react in certain ways, and we call these characteristics and predispositions their temperament. Temperament includes the intensity and quality of emotional reactions, activity level, attention, and self-regulation. In the 1950s two researchers, Chess and Thomas, were studying infants and began to rate them on a variety of characteristics. Based on these observations, they placed children into one of four categories. First, some of the babies were categorized as “easy.” These babies adapted easily to new situations, had generally cheerful moods, and had regular sleeping and eating patterns. I hope, if and when you have a baby, you have an easy baby, as this just makes your life, well, easier. Second, some of the babies were categorized as “difficult.” These babies were intensely emotional, cried a lot, and had irregular sleeping and eating patterns. You will love your baby regardless, but these difficult babies can be, well, difficult. Third, some of the babies were categorized as “slow to warm up.” These babies had a low activity level, would withdraw from new stimuli, and adapted slowly to new situations. I guess you could say these babies were a little bit anxious. Fourth, and finally, the other babies were categorized as average, mostly because they didn’t really fit into any of the other categories neatly. These differences in temperament are probably biologically-based—due to physiological differences in heart rate, brain waves, hormone levels, and many other characteristics. Many of these differences are likely due to genetic factors. Although Chess and Thomas put the babies into categories, more recently researchers have focused on dimensions of temperament. A dimension means that the temperamental characteristic ranges from low levels to high levels rather than being a category. Mary Rothbart studied infant temperament and described a number of dimensions, as you can see below. The first is activity level. Some babies are highly active, some moderately so, and some have low activity levels. Dr. Kimberly Saudino in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Boston University studies genetic contributions to this aspect of infant temperament in young twins. The second is really a set of dimensions relating to emotions. It includes: Soothability. Some infants are easy to soothe when they’re upset, and a simple hug, a hand on the back, or some cuddling will soothe them. Other infants are very hard to soothe when upset. And some infants are in the middle on soothability. Fearful distress. Some babies experience a lot of fearful distress and some experience very little. Irritable distress. Some babies get really frustrated and some babies experience little of this frustration. Positive emotion. Some babies are super happy, and some less so. I must say, a happy baby, a smiley baby, elicits smiles from the world around her or him. This is an example of what we call an evocative effect—that is, a child’s characteristics evoke certain responses from the environment. We often think that parents influence their children, and this is true, but children also influence their parents. For example, a noncompliant and disobedient child often elicits more harsh punishment and inflexibility in parents (unfortunately, the last thing a child with this kind of temperament needs). As another example, an anxious child often elicits intrusive and overprotective responses in parents (also the last thing a child with this kind of temperament needs). Happily, a smiley baby evokes smiles from the world. I think you'll find it interesting to listen to at least some, if not all, of the following 10-minute TED Talk by David Rettew, Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatrics at the University of Vermont College of Medicine. Child Temperament: How We Start to Become Ourselves | David C Rettew | TEDxBurlingtonED So temperament is what the child brings into the world, and then what happens between parents and children? Well, one very important thing is what we call attachment. Attachment is the emotional bond that forms between caregivers (usually parents) and children. I want to distinguish attachment from the sort of modern idea of what some folks call “bonding.” Some people will say that if you don’t have skin-to-skin contact (bonding) with your infants in the first few days, you will never have a good relationship. I’m here to tell you that that is just simply not true. So don’t believe it. Many children who are born premature or have medical problems have spent months in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) at the hospital and are still able to form a very powerful and positive attachment with their caregivers. Let’s talk about attachment. According to attachment theory, the attachment between the parent and the child will influence the child’s ability to thrive both physically and psychologically. So how do we measure attachment in developmental psychology? We can use something called the Strange Situation, developed by Mary Salter Ainsworth. The Strange Situation Test It’s interesting that it’s called the Strange Situation, because it’s modeled after a situation that children frequently encounter—one where they visit a new place with the parent. Procedure In the strange situation, the parent and child enter a lab setting and are videotaped. The lab room is set up in a comfortable and inviting way with toys and comfortable chairs, the parent and child enter, and, after a time, the child begins to play with the toys. Then a stranger enters and tries to engage the child and then leaves; and then the important thing happens. The mother leaves the child alone in the room! The mother returns—and this is called the REUNION. Researchers studying attachment are particularly interested in Steps 3 and 4. So what happens? Typically, when the mother leaves, the child begins to cry and show distress. What happens when the mother returns? Is this child able to use the mother as a source of comfort, to calm him or herself down and to re-engage and play? Researchers refer to the mother (or other caregiver) as a “secure base” from which the child can leave to explore the world and to which they can return if they need that security. So, in the Strange Situation, does the child use the mother as that secure base? The researchers evaluate this based on the child’s behavior. Using this Strange Situation challenge to examine children’s behavior, researchers have categorized attachment in the following ways: Secure attachment. In a secure attachment, the infant cries when the mother is away, but is able to use her for comfort when she returns. The child will often run to her, ask to be held, be comforted relatively easily, and soon return to play. Insecure attachment. In an insecure attachment, the child is unable to use the mother adequately for comfort. There are several different kinds of insecure attachments, and I’m going to describe two: Avoidant attachment. In this case, instead of using the mother as a source of comfort, the child tends to avoid her when she returns, turning away. Resistant or ambivalent attachment. In this case, the child seems unable to calm down even in the presence of the mother. The child may appear almost angry at the mother for her absence and unable to move on and return to play easily. cartoon example of 4 attachement types Source: Kendra Cherry, VeryWellMind Take a look at the Strange Situation video, as it demonstrates with real children the use of the Strange Situation to evaluate attachment and shows secure and insecure (avoidant and ambivalent) attachment styles. Now why is attachment important? Compared to insecure attachments, secure attachments predict more empathic and socially competent behavior in preschool children, and, compared to those with insecure attachments, those with secure attachments are on average more interpersonally skillful, better in school, and have fewer problems in adolescence. According to attachment theorists, the child internalizes a representation of the attachment relationship, and we call this “an internal working model.” The internal working model is a set of expectations about relationships. When you think about it, your relationship with your caregivers is your first experience of what a relationship is and can be. It sets the stage for future relationships, and that’s your early internal working model. You begin to develop an idea of what you can expect from relationships, including whether you can depend on others, whether others will be there for you, whether others will be predictable, etc. This is not to say that attachment in infancy is 100% predictive. There are some children who may have insecure attachments to parents but later develop close and secure attachments to other individuals in their environment, perhaps a teacher, coach, grandparent, mentor, or other important figure. Attachment is certainly not destiny. You may also wonder if we can form more than one attachment. Yes, absolutely. You may develop an attachment to both parents, a caregiver grandparent, and maybe a preschool teacher. The number of attachments that you can form early on is not unlimited, but it isn’t just one person necessarily. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget in Ann Arbor Source: By Unidentified (Ensian published by University of Michigan) - 1968 Michiganensian, p. 91, Public Domain, At this point we have talked about physical development and social/emotional development. Along with these we see great changes and increasing sophistication in cognitive development—the mental processes involved in thinking, remembering and processing information. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, was particularly influential in his theory of cognitive development. Piaget describes cognitive development in the following ways: Cognitive development is active. Children learn through doing. We can probably all relate to this when we think back to kindergarten and the many activities we engaged in as we were learning about the world. The best ways to teach children are through engaging them actively to illustrate concepts and to have them apply these concepts in their own lives. That’s not just for children! Indeed, in this course when you can come up with an example for yourself to illustrate a concept, you are more likely to understand and remember that concept. Children go through four distinct stages of cognitive development. I will be describing these in detail below. Piaget’s theory is a stage theory, and he proposed that children’s thinking was not only greater at each subsequent stage but different in kind. That is to say, the changes between stages are qualitative in nature. Development: Schemas, Assimilation, & Accommodation From Piaget’s perspective, children are developing schemas for understanding and exploring their world. These schemas are structures for understanding and organizing information about the world. Schemas are those structures of memory that organize what we know about a particular topic. If we go back to thinking about memory, we know that memory is schema based. When new information is encountered, children try to place that information into existing schemas, and this is what Piaget called assimilation. However, when the new information doesn’t fit, the child develops a new schema, and Piaget called this accommodation. As an example, an infant has what we would call “a sucking schema” for exploring the world. The infant puts things in her mouth as a means of exploring the world and discovering new information about objects. Any of you who’ve spent time with infants know that almost anything they encounter goes into the mouth—pieces of lint on the rug, other people’s fingers, cat toys (a rather disgusting process at times!). So what if you give an infant a rattle? The first thing that infant might do is to place it in his or her mouth—this is an example of trying to assimilate this new object into an existing schema, the sucking schema. But this really doesn’t work so well, as a rattle is very uninteresting as an object to suck on. Perhaps the child then accidentally shakes the rattle, and, lo and behold, it makes an interesting noise! The child then accommodates, that is, she forms a new schema; we will call it a “shaking schema,” in which objects are shaken to determine how they work. So in this case, the child has tried to assimilate the new information, been unable to do so, and has accommodated by forming a new schema. Now let’s talk about how children’s cognition changes as they develop. Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development Source: verywellmind Sensorimotor Stage First, is the sensorimotor stage from birth to about age 2. During the sensorimotor stage, which is the first stage of cognitive development, the infant explores his world through sensing and manipulating it. This is how he acquires knowledge. He may look at the object, smell it, touch it, move it around, push it back and forth, and figure out how it works. For example, if he encounters a ball, he may first try to place it in his mouth, turn it around and over, and eventually try to roll it. Piaget believed that children were little scientists trying to figure out the laws governing the world they live in. I think of the child during this stage of development as a young physicist trying to figure out the laws governing objects. The 1-year-old will happily push over her sister’s block tower and scream with delight as she watches the blocks fall. She’s figuring things out. One of the major accomplishments of the sensorimotor period, according to Piaget, is the development of what he called object permanence—the idea that objects continue to exist even when hidden or no longer apparent. When the very small infant drops his pacifier under his covers, he may not look for it, as he does not recognize that it still exists. During the sensorimotor stage, he begins to realize that objects still exist even when they are no longer apparent, and he will begin to search for the missing pacifier. He has come to an important cognitive understanding about the way the world works. Objects exist even if we don’t see them any longer. Preoperational Stage The next stage of cognitive development is the preoperational stage; it lasts from approximately age 2 to age 7 where the child and begins to demonstrate what Piaget referred to as “pre-logical” thought processes. This stage is characterized by the following: Symbolic thought. During this stage we see the beginning of symbolic thought as children develop the ability to use words, images, and symbols. Indeed, we see impressive gains in language, and we also see the use of fantasy and imagination during play. The child may make a “cake” out of dirt, leaves, and mud, bring it to you, and ask, “What do you think of my cake?” Now of course the child knows that you are not going to actually eat this cake! He realizes that this mess is not something you would want to eat. This mud cake is a symbol of a real cake. And, if you are good with children, you will play along and say something like, “Wow, I love your cake, what flavor is it?” Children engage in all kinds of representative play, where one object represents something in the real world. Egocentrism. During this stage we also see the children are often egocentric. When I say this, I don’t mean that there are egotistical or mean. They just have a hard time taking another person’s perspective or point of view. They are only able to see things from their vantage point. Think of the child who is asked to talk on the phone to her grandmother, and she may say, “Hi Grandma, isn’t my doll pretty?” Now of course Grandma cannot see the doll. (Grandma is on the phone after all.) The child is egocentric and has a hard time taking the grandmother’s point of view; she assumes that because she herself can see the doll, the grandmother must be able to as well. Irreversibility. According to Piaget, the child during the preoperational stage also exhibits irreversibility—she cannot reverse a sequence of events. For example, teaching a child subtraction at this stage is very difficult. Subtraction involves reversing a sequence of events (addition). Centration. The child also exhibits centration during the preoperational phase. Centration is the tendency to focus or center on only one dimension of the situation at a time and ignore other important aspects of the situation Piaget demonstrated this through conservation experiments. Conservation is a set of understandings that quantity, number, mass and other physical dimensions remain the same even when their form or appearance is rearranged, so long as nothing is added or subtracted. See the video for a demonstration of conservation. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod4_conservation video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Concrete Operational Stage The next stage of cognitive development is the concrete operational stage, lasting from about age 7 through age 11. During this stage of development, the child is able to think logically about concrete objects and situations but she’s not able to consider abstract ideas. What do we mean by “concrete”? Concrete thinking is focused on real, observable phenomenon. For, example the concrete operational child can use logic to understand how to put objects together or take them apart; she can comprehend how a machine works; he can use the scientific method to fix a problem (holding all aspects constant and manipulating only one at a time). She can do those conservation tasks with relative ease. What do we mean by “abstract”? These are ideas that cannot be readily observed and have to be inferred—justice, freedom, etc. Children in the concrete operational stage can’t really understand such ideas (except in concrete terms; for example, “justice” is making sure you get as big a piece of cake as the other person). Remember though that these skills emerge over time, and the exact timing may be different for different children and different tasks. Formal Operational Stage The next and final stage of cognitive development according to Piaget is the formal operational stage. This lasts from adolescence through adulthood, and during this stage individuals are able to think logically about abstract principles and hypothetical situations and generalize from specific examples to other situations. It seems that this period of cognitive development may emerge gradually. Criticisms of Piaget Although Piaget’s theory has been hugely influential, it has also been criticized. Here are some of the main criticisms: Piaget may have underestimated the abilities of children and infants. Sometimes Piaget confused motor competence with cognitive competence when he was assessing object permanence during infancy. Perhaps children knew more than they were able to demonstrate from a motor standpoint. As an example, later investigators who used different types of tasks (ones that rely less on motor abilities) found that infants may develop object permanence far earlier than Piaget had initially indicated. Piaget suggested that his stages were universal, but this may not be quite true. Many adults may not display abstract thinking that he said was characteristic of the formal operational stage. Indeed, many of us only display formal operational thinking in areas where we have a lot of knowledge and expertise. For example, an English major may be able to discuss literature using abstract principles but may not be able to think of a physics problem in an abstract way. Alternatively, the physics major may be able to think abstractly about the nature of the cosmos but may not be able to discuss the underlying meaning in a particular work of fiction. Nowadays many developmental psychologists focus on an information-processing model of cognitive development, which emphasizes the continuous changes in cognitive development that occur over the lifespan. They may focus on understanding mental processes including attention, memory, and problem solving. Piaget emphasized cognitive development as a process of maturation, and he may have underestimated the important impact of the social and cultural environments on children’s cognitive advances. Cross-cultural studies suggest that cognitive development may be strongly impacted by cultural values. Language Development One of the major developments throughout childhood is the growth in language. Children go from not talking to being big talkers! How does this occur? In many ways, language is the ultimate representational (or symbol) system that children acquire. In language, words represent objects, actions, ideas, etc. How do we learn language? Many people would respond by saying that children imitate others, and certainly that is part of it. But I would argue it is much, much more complicated than that, so let’s talk about language development. Major Characteristics of Language Human language is unique. Yes, we can teach chimpanzees to use sign language, but I would argue that they can only learn a limited number of words and it is certainly a labor-intensive process. On the other hand, human children “pick up” language along the way. How they do this is pretty amazing. Here are some of the defining characteristics of human language: It’s creative. That is, you use it in new ways all the time. You say things that you’ve never heard before (so the idea of imitation is not really adequate as an explanation for language development). It’s structured. Most times we are not even aware of the deeply embedded structure of language. We obey lots of rules. I’d like to distinguish between prescriptive rules of language and the descriptive rules of language. Prescriptive rules are those that we are aware of and allow us to speak the language “properly.” These rules include avoiding the word “ain’t” and never ending a sentence with a preposition. So if you want to speak the Queen’s English, obey the prescriptive rules!! On the other hand, descriptive rules are those that any ordinary speaker of the language follows. These rules describe how language is actually used, and these rules are often far out of our awareness—I’ll demonstrate that later! It’s meaningful. It helps us convey concepts to one another. It’s referential. It allows us to reference happenings in the past and future; it allows us to communicate about objects and people that aren’t even present (or maybe never existed!). It’s interpersonal. We engage in language in an interpersonal context to communicate our meaning with others. This is not to say that we always and only use language with others. How many of you have been known to talk to yourselves? Don’t be embarrassed! Most folks do this. Sometimes I smile when I drive by someone who is completely alone in the car and is talking a mile a minute. Of course, I have been that person . . . We talk to ourselves as we figure out a problem aloud, as we rehearse what we are going to say to someone else, as we remind ourselves of things we need to do. No shame in talking to yourself! On the other hand, most of our language is used to communicate with others. Language Structure Before we can talk about language development, we need to know something about its structure. Here’s a hierarchy of language: Phonemes. These are the individual sounds of language, and there are about 40 in English. Many languages contain unique phonemes—ones that are not present in all languages. Morphemes. You can start to put these phonemes together into meaningful chunks. There are two types of morphemes: content and function. Content morphemes carry the bulk of the meaning; function morphemes add details to that meaning. Let me give you an example. Take the word “workers.” It has three morphemes—three meaningful chunks. The first is “work”; it is a content morpheme as it carries a lot of meaning. We all know what “work” means. The next morpheme is “er”; it is a function morpheme. In English when we add “er” we make it clear that we are talking about a person who does the thing—a “worker” is a person who does the work. The next morpheme is “s”; it is a function morpheme. In English this one tiny letter conveys a lot of information—it tells us that there is more than one of them. In this case, “workers” means that there is more than one worker. It indicates the plural. The word “workers” contains three morphemes—one content and two function. Words. These are just collections of morphemes. Phrases. These are just collections of words. Sentences. These are just collections of phrases. Now we could go on if we wanted to talk about written language, but for our purposes we are going to focus on spoken language. Spoken Language Now that we know about language structure, let’s focus on some theory. Noam Chomsky on Language Development Noam Chomsky was a linguist who put forth the idea that human children are born with an innate predisposition to learn language—it’s a basic instinct. He referred to a “universal grammar” or an inborn understanding of how language works and how children are predisposed to extract both the meaning and the structure of language through exposure. This is a Nativist approach (we are born with it), and some would say it ignores potentially important environmental contributions . . . so we’ll get back to Chomsky. Let’s talk about some environmental happenings that may support language. In many situations, adults and older children talk to infants in a particular kind of way, and this type of language has come to be known as “motherese” or “infant-directed speech”—I prefer that latter label, as not just mothers are doing this. In this type of speech, when we speak to infants we use distinct pronunciation, a simplified vocabulary, a high-pitched tone, lots of repetition, and exaggerated expression and intonation. You all probably have a pretty good idea of what I’m talking about here! It’s funny when you see people doing this with their dogs and cats (i.e., their babies!). The truth is that infants seem particularly drawn to this kind of speech. What infant-directed speech does is to make it easier for babies to decode the complexities of language. One important point: Babies do not learn language through TV! They learn while interacting with others. We also see babies and their caregivers interacting in games that encourage vocal imitation. Just one caveat—not all cultures use this infant-directed speech. . Hmm. Yet these children still learn language . . . There are other types of important interactions with caregivers that are happening throughout early development and that support language learning. They include: Shared Attention. From early on it is essential that babies begin to be able to share attention with caregivers. When the caregiver points to an object, the typically-developing baby looks at what is being pointed to. Over time, the infant will begin to follow the caregiver’s gaze—to look at the same thing the caregiver is looking at. Thus, the focus of attention for both is the same—that’s essential for learning from others. Comprehension vs. production. Any of you learn a new language? If so, you know that your ability to understand language proceeds your ability to produce clear sentences. That’s true with children as well. I remember getting ready to go to the park with my 15-month-old son. He could say “mama” and that’s it. I’m running around the house looking for his sippy cup and saying, “Now where did I put that cup!?” Next thing I know he comes up and says “Mama” and hands me the cup! Wow! His production was limited, but his comprehension was pretty good. Comprehension comes before production. Turn-taking. When we use language, we take turns. I talk for a bit, then you talk, then I talk, etc. We learn to let others “take the floor,” and at times we “take the floor.” Please don’t be the kind of person who holds the floor and just talks and talks and never gives anyone else their turn! Ugh! Pre-verbal children take turns with their caregivers—the child says “Bah Gah Gah,” and the parent takes a turn, “Bah Bah Bah”, and so on. My point here is that these are prerequisites to language—then when the language finally comes, it can just “drop in” to these previously established communication skills. So how does language emerge? What are some of the milestones of language development? Developmental Milestones: Baby Talk from First Sounds to First Words In early infancy, babies cry to communicate their needs. This is super effective! Nothing makes adults come running like hearing a baby cry—you want to figure out what’s causing the crying and fix it fast. Over time parents can begin to recognize distinct cries that mean “I’m hungry,” “I need a clean diaper,” “I’m tired,” “I want to be held,” etc. Interestingly, during this time babies are able to distinguish between the phonemes of all languages! They can distinguish the English phonemes, the Japanese phonemes, the Swahili phonemes, etc. They can do it all. They can hear the difference between, say, “bah” and “pah.” At about 3 months of age the baby begins to coo. . . so cute! Cooing is composed of long vowel strings. It’s adorable but slightly disruptive when done loudly in a quiet restaurant setting. The baby is practicing making sounds. At about 5 months of age the child begins to babble. Babbling is practicing using different phonemes and at this age babies babble using phonemes from all different languages. The child is a generalist—practicing skills that will allow them to learn any language! At about age 9 months the child begins to narrow their babbling to just those phonemes that are present in the language(s) they are being exposed to. The child is now becoming a specialist! He or she will be ready to learn the language of his/her own people—French, Swahili, Tagalog, any other. Methods Now you might wonder how it is we know what babies do and don’t know. It’s a really good question. How we figure this out? Well one way is by using what’s called a habituation paradigm. A paradigm is an experimental strategy or approach. As you will recall from our learning chapter, habituation is a process whereby individuals stop responding to a repeated stimulus. When a baby notices something new in his or her environment, that baby responds. One thing a baby will do when they hear something novel is to begin sucking more rapidly. As he or she habituates, the rate of sucking behavior decreases. So here’s how a habituation paradigm to study children’s recognition of new phonemes might work. Look at the graph in this slide. abituation paradigm The researcher could play a recording of a phoneme being repeated over and over again, for example “Bah, bah, bah.” At first, when the baby hears this recording of a new sound, the rate of sucking will increase. After a while the baby habituates to the sound, and the rate of sucking then decreases. Then the researcher could play a recording of a new phoneme being repeated over and over again, for example, “pah, pah, pah”. If the baby’s rate of sucking then rapidly increases, we know that the baby can recognize the difference between “bah” and “pah” (after all, “pah” is new information!). We can’t ask the baby what he or she knows, but we can use his or her behavior to give us some very powerful information. At about 1 year of age children begin to say their first actual words. The first word is usually a person, activity or concrete object—“mama”, “bye bye” or “ball” might be examples. They are not likely to use a verb like “throw” or “be”. They then begin to add single words. They overgeneralize meaning here at times—they apply a new word to inappropriate instances. For example, once they learn the word “doggie”, they may label any furry four-legged creature as “doggie”; however they soon learn that only the domestic canine is really a “doggie”. At about age 2 children begin to combine words to form telegraphic speech—speech that is devoid of connecting words like conjunctions (“and”), prepositions (“of,” “with,” etc.), or articles (“an,” “the,” etc.). They combine these words with gestures to communicate pretty clearly. They may say “more milk,” meaning “I’d like you to give me more milk,” or “throw ball,” meaning “I’m going to throw the ball.” Notice here that they are using correct word order—and we see that throughout this period of development. It seems that child is already learning something about the structure of language! By 30 months of age children show a rapid increase in language and longer utterances—they are learning fast, and they still use appropriate word order. They also use proper verb forms—“I ate my lunch.” Around age 4 or 5 something weird happens—they begin to make mistakes! They used to say “I ate my lunch” but now they say, “I ate my lunch,” but now they say, “I eated my lunch.” They used to say, “I held the puppy,” but now they say, “I holded the puppy.” Oh no! Why are they messing up? Actually, this is evidence that they are learning something about the deep structure of language. In English, the past tense for regular verbs is obtained by adding “ed,” so “jerk” becomes “jerked,” “ask” become “asked.” The child has learned this and begins to overgeneralize this rule to situations where it doesn’t apply (irregular verbs)! Now if you ask the child why they are doing this, they won’t know. We do know that parents aren’t teaching the rule. Eventually they stop overgeneralizing and use the correct verb tense. This really does illustrate how children are learning language rules from hearing spoken language, and they don’t even know it’s happening. Chomsky was right—children do have an inborn predisposition to learn language, and often this ability is supported by the environment. However, this process really applies to learning language structure and meaning. There’s a lot more to language! As one example, how do children learn to say “please” and “thank you”? Parents consciously teach this to children! We are not innately driven to be polite! Our parents teach us this. Also, there are some powerful differences in how boys and girls are exposed to language. Parents tend to talk to girls more and use more emotion words (e.g., “sad,” “happy,” “excited,” etc.). Parents tend to use the word “no” more with boys—even in the crib! It looks like boys and girls are socialized according to gender starting very, very early. Are parents aware that they are doing this? NO. Parents will often be completely unaware—they are doing this unconsciously. Disorders of Language So what happens when it all goes wrong? And what does this tell us about brain regions involved in language? An aphasia is a severe language impairment. People can experience aphasias for a number of reasons. In some instances, an individual experiences a stroke—an area of the brain where blood flow is cut off leading to damage. Studies have demonstrated that damage to an area in the brain known as Broca’s area leads to what is known as an expressive aphasia. Broca’s area is in the back part of the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain. In this Broca’s aphasia, the individual has tremendous difficulty in producing words, reading, and writing. I remember this by noting that Broca’s aphasia leads to “broken language.” These individuals may understand well but have trouble communicating. Here’s a video of a man with Broca’s aphasia: Broca's Aphasia (Non-Fluent Aphasia) tactustherapy Damage to an area in the brain known as Wernicke’s area leads to what is known as a receptive aphasia. Wernicke’s area is in the rear part of the temporal lobe where it connects to the parietal lobe. In Wernicke’s aphasia, the individual has difficulty understanding language, even their own; he or she may speak fluently but make little sense. Here’s a video of a man with Wernicke’s aphasia: Fluent Aphasia (Wernicke's Aphasia) tactustherapy Additional Areas of Development I Want You to Understand for the Exam If you haven’t yet read it, you will notice that chapter 8 is a long one! There’s a lot of information there. In terms of chapter 9, there are only a few things I want you to remember. These are: The difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence and how this changes from young adults to older adults. Facts about puberty: This is the period of change where children begin to develop secondary sex characteristics (e.g., growth of genitalia, increase in body hair, breasts and menstruation in girls, facial hair and lowering of the voice in boys, etc.). This is when you go from being a child to being an adult. Puberty can take several years to complete. It is associated with many neurological changes—decrease in dopamine in certain regions, increase in myelination of neuronal axons. It starts, on average, earlier for girls than boys. Think about the early middle school years when girls get taller and more “woman-like” and boys are often still short and “boyish.” It can begin at a range of ages—some kids start earlier than others. Early puberty can be associated with increased risks for girls (e.g., school dropout, precocious sexuality, early pregnancy, etc.). It’s less clear for boys—some studies suggest advantages (it’s good for sports performance, for example) and others suggest disadvantages. Now let’s talk about another stage theory! It’s the stage theory of moral development. Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg was an American psychologist interested in the ways in which our thinking about right and wrong change with age. How do we develop our moral thinking? Kohlberg devised a series of moral dilemmas that typically involved a choice between two alternatives, both of which would be considered generally unacceptable by society’s standards. He described to his subjects the following dilemma, known as the Heinz dilemma: What: Kohlberg wouldn’t be interested in whether you thought Heinz was right or wrong. He was interested in the process you used to reach your judgment; your reasoning would indicate how advanced your moral thinking is. Kohlberg asked his subjects a series of questions about each moral dilemma and then used a complex scoring system to assign a subject to a particular category or stage of moral reasoning. He then developed a theory of moral development in which he proposed that we move through 6 stages of moral reasoning with 3 basic levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Let’s focus on the preconventional level: Children ages 4–10 Self-serving approach to morality Stage 1: avoid punishment. For example, “Heinz should steal the drug because if his wife dies, he’ll get in trouble.” Stage 2: get rewards. For example, “Heinz should steal the drug so she can still be alive and keep him company.” Children haven’t internalized a personal code of morality yet. The next level is the conventional level: Late childhood–early adolescence Stage 3: desire to help others and gain their approval. For example, “Heinz should steal the drug to help his wife feel better and for other people to know he’s a good person.” Stage 4: help maintain the social order. For example, “Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because it’s against the law; laws allow people to live together and resolve conflicts.” Begin to internalize moral standards of adults The final level is the post-conventional level: Stage 5: affirms values agreed on by society including individual rights and the need for democratically determined rules. For example, “Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because rules are essential in a democratic society to maintain the rights of individuals who have made sacrifices to develop new drugs.” Stage 6: individuals are guided by universal ethical principles in which they do what they think is right as a matter of conscience, even if their acts conflict with society’s rules. For example, “Heinz should steal the drug because respecting human life supersedes the profit motive and is the higher moral principle.” It’s not whether you think the act is right or wrong, it is the reasoning one uses to arrive at that conclusion. Kohlberg thought only about 25% of adults in our society progress beyond Stage 4, and that most of these individuals do so sometime during their adult years. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development There have been a number of critiques of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, including: A high level of moral reasoning does not necessarily go hand-in-hand with moral actions, especially if a person is under strong social pressure Carol Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s stage theory, which was based on male participants, ignores critical differences between the sexes in social and moral understanding For example, in a research study, she compared men and women’s thinking about real-life dilemmas, such as abortion. Men tended to focus on issues about justice while women tended to focus on issues about care of others. Can you think of other possible critiques? Let’s think of a “real life” application of Kohlberg’s moral stages: You are home for the summer hanging out with your friends from high school at a party where your best friend is going to introduce you to her new boyfriend. Your friend has told you she’s totally in love and you are excited to meet him. As soon as she introduces you, you recognize him and realize that he is the same guy who is also spending “quality time” with a friend of yours from college. Your best friend has no idea and would be really upset to find out he was cheating on her. Do you tell your best friend what you know about him and risk your friendship with her? Do you let it play out naturally and not say anything? Or, do you say something to the boyfriend without proof? What would you do? What might someone think if they were using pre-conventional moral reasoning? How about conventional moral reasoning? How about post-conventional moral reasoning? Methods in Developmental Psychology What are some of the ways that we study development? I’m going to compare two different types of research designs that are used in developmental psychology. Cross-Sectional Design In a cross-sectional design, we look at different groups of children at different ages. For example, let’s say I want to understand how 6-month-olds and 9-month-olds differ on object permanence tasks. I could recruit 30 six-month-olds (and their parents, of course) and 30 nine-month-olds (and their parents) and examine their performance on these tasks. This would be an example of a correlational study in that I’m examining the relationship between age and object permanence. As another example, let’s say I want to understand the impact of two different methods for teaching addition on children’s memory for addition concepts. I could recruit, say, 200 children and randomly assign half of them into method A and the other half into method B. I could then do an immediate posttest to evaluate how much they remembered of the math concepts. This would be an experimental study (it’s experimental because I, the experimenter, “manipulated” the independent variable – the teaching method). There are a number of advantages to the cross-sectional design. Given that I only have to test the children once, it is easy, quick, and relatively inexpensive. I can compare my groups and have an answer to my question. On the other hand, there are disadvantages. In the correlational design, I cannot determine precisely when the particular skill (object permanence) emerged. In the experimental example, I do not know if the differences I’m seeing would stand up over time. The cross-sectional design is really a snapshot on development, much like taking a picture at one particular moment. Longitudinal Design Closer: Longitudinal studies: an overview In the longitudinal design, I follow a group of participants over a longer period of time. What I can do here is examine change over time, and that is not something I can do in a cross-sectional study. For example, let’s say that I want to examine how boys and girls differ in their development of friendships during middle school. I could select a group of middle school boys and girls and follow them for the three years of middle school, conducting regular evaluations (maybe every six months) of their friendships. This is an example of a correlational study. As another example, let’s say that I want to examine two different methods for teaching school children reading. I could recruit a sample of say 200 elementary school children and randomly assign half of them to one reading curriculum and half of them to a different reading curriculum. They could then undergo the reading curricula and I could follow them over time to see how reading is impacted across the elementary school years. This is an example of an experimental study. There are many advantages to a longitudinal design. For one thing each individual is followed, so I can control for individual differences (in some ways each as their own control). Second, I can examine how people change over time. However, there are also downsides to the longitudinal design. One downside is that it’s pretty expensive to conduct such a study. These expenses include money, time, and other resources. A second downside is that we can have problems with attrition. Attrition is a loss of data over time due to the fact that not all participants will agree to continue to participate in the study. This is a real problem. How do I know that those who participated over time are the same as those who didn’t participate? Is the sample that is retained generalizable to the sample that was lost? In doing longitudinal research it is essential to try to maintain your sample and not lose participants. The other thing that can happen that can present a real problem is if some important completely unplanned event takes place in the middle of your study. Let’s say that in my example of studying student friendships, halfway through my study a new middle school opens and half of my participants are sent to the new middle school! Oh no, that really disrupts student's friendships, so what happens to my study? Or take the example of my reading intervention. Let’s say I did my reading intervention and I began following up with the kids to see how they did. Then suddenly the school district decides to implement a new reading protocol to enhance reading for all students. Oh no! How does this impact what I learn about my reading intervention? So you can see that doing a longitudinal study can be quite tricky. Comparison Table of Cross-Sectional Design vs. Longitudinal Design Cross-Sectional Longitudinal One point in time Several points in time Different samples Same samples Snapshot of a given point in time, change at a societal level Change at an individual level Example: Cross-sectional studies of personality in a national sample Example: The Seattle Longitudinal Study, a study of adult development from midlife through old age that has followed a panel of people since 1956. Review and Reflect Do You Remember? Test your memory by matching the terms to their definitions. Module 5 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 5: The Personality and Larger Social Level Monday, June 10 – Sunday, June 16 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 10–11 (pages 418–437; 441–448; 456-483) Module 5 online content Discussions: Module 5 Discussion Initial responses due Thursday, June 13, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, June 16, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, June 18, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: Research Article Paper Outline due Thursday, June 13, 9:00 AM ET Live Classrooms: Monday, June 10, 7:30–9:00 PM ET Activity: Complete Module 5 Review and Reflect, due Monday, June 17, 11:59 PM ET Welcome to Module 5 cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod5 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Learning Objectives Compare and contrast social cognition and social influence. Describe differences in attributional biases, including the fundamental attribution error, actor-observer discrepancy, and self-serving bias. Explain the ABC model of attitudes. Describe factors that contribute to the development of prejudice, including social categorization, in-groups and out-groups, out-group homogeneity effect, and in-group bias. List three attributes of situations that increase the likelihood individuals will obey a destructive authority. List three factors that increase the likelihood individuals will help others in need of help. Describe key characteristics of the psychoanalytic approach, including major structures of the mind and defense mechanisms. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social cognitive approaches to personality, including their perspective on human nature (positive, negative, neutral) and personal choice, and the degree of scientific support. Describe the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem and provide examples of each. List the “Big 5” personality traits. Personality Introduction We probably all have a pretty good colloquial sense of what personality is. But how do psychologists think of personality? Psychologists define personality as each individual’s distinctive and relatively stable patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. In this part of the course, I’m going to go over several personality theories. A personality theory attempts to describe and explain both similarities and differences between individuals. In so much of psychology we are examining what makes people similar, but personality psychology is also focused on individual differences. We will review four perspectives on the study of personality: the psychoanalytic perspective, the humanistic perspective, the social-cognitive perspective, and the trait perspective. Who are you, really? The puzzle of personality | Brian Little Psychoanalytic Perspective This particular perspective on the study of personality has been around for over 100 years. It is generally NOT well-supported by research and has clearly lost its dominance in influencing current thinking in psychology. However, it continues to reach its tentacles deep into our culture in many ways, influencing language, literature, medicine, sexuality, psychotherapy, on and on. I will talk later in this section about the ways in which it laid some of the ground for the emergence of the MeToo# movement. Freud’s work left a powerful legacy, and for that reason alone it is important to understand. Sigmund Freud This psychoanalytic perspective, also referred to as psychoanalysis, was founded by an Austrian neurologist named Sigmund Freud. His psychoanalysis was both a theory of personality and a particular approach to psychotherapy. Freud was Jewish and lived in Austria during a time in which antisemitism was strong, and Freud was an outsider in his time. He puts forth his ideas in the Victorian era, a time when discussion of sexuality was very taboo. Many of his ideas were shocking to people in his day and continue to be to some people now. So let’s talk a little bit about Freud’s personality theory; here are some of its dominant themes. Dominant Themes in Freud’s Theory Conflict Freud’s theory is often referred to as a “dynamic” theory of personality, and that is because it emphasizes conflict between psychological forces within the individual. The internal landscape of the individual is not constant but rather undergoing regular change and upheaval (dynamic rather than stable or static). Topography Freud’s theory postulated a topography of the human mind. What do I mean by this? Have you ever seen a topographic map? A topographic map shows different levels of elevation on the Earth’s surface. Using a topographic map, you will notice the height of mountains, the depth of valleys, and even the depth of the ocean trenches. Similarly, Freud’s theory included the idea that our experience occurs at various levels of consciousness. The first level is what Freud would call the conscious level. At this level are all the sensations, feelings, and thoughts that you are aware of any given time. In terms of topography, we can think of the conscious level as sea level. The second level is what Freud would call the preconscious level. This is information that, while not readily in consciousness could easily enter consciousness. For example, childhood memories, the sensation of the chair against your back as you are sitting, etc. Perhaps we can think of the preconscious from a topographic standpoint as shallow waters, where one can easily wade in. The third level is what Freud would call the unconscious level, and this is the level at which Freud posited that wishes, urges, drives, thoughts, and feelings operated out of awareness. Although we are unaware of what is happening at this level, he postulated that it had an enormous impact on everyday behavior and personality. In other words, much of our behavior is driven by unconscious forces. He also thought that the unconscious could be revealed through free association (e.g., when individuals in therapy describe to the therapist whatever happens to drift into their minds), dreams, and slips of the tongue. We can think of the unconscious mind as the deep trenches of the ocean where dark things lurk! Structure Freud also described the personality as consisting of three internal structures, which emerge over the course of early-life development and drive behavior for a lifetime. The first structure he called the id, which is Latin for the it. According to Freud, the id is a completely unconscious and irrational part of the self that is focused exclusively on immediate gratification of primal urges and desires. It operates on the pleasure principle, which means that it exclusively seeks immediate gratification. The id “wants what it wants when it wants it.” When the baby is born, he or she is pretty much all id—demanding immediate gratification of all needs and desires. Freud further posited that there were two instincts driving the id. The first he called Eros, or the life instinct, which focuses on perpetuating one’s own self and the species. This instinct is fueled by what Freud referred to as libido (we can also think of this as the sex drive but it really described seeking pleasure of many kinds). The second instinctual drive he called Thanatos, or the death instinct, which focuses on aggressive and violent impulses. The second structure he called the ego, which is Latin for I. According to Freud, the ego is a partly conscious and rational part of the personality. It helps regulate our thoughts and behavior, is in touch with the demands of the outside world, and helps us to meet the needs and desires of the id. The ego operates on what’s called the reality principle, which is the idea that one must get one’s needs met while also responding to environmental demands and postponing gratification at times. The ego is realistic. The third structure he called the superego, which is a partly conscious, moral part of the personality. The superego forms over time as the individual begins to internalize the rules and values of society and parents. It’s interesting to consider that these structures may differ in “size” in different people. The “psychopath” has a very large id (strong impulses and desires for pleasure), a somewhat large ego (he/she may be good at finding ways to satisfy the id), and a very small superego (underdeveloped morally). There may be other people who have a smaller id (less motivated by pleasure-seeking), a large ego (able to manage the world to meet needs and desires), and a very large superego (highly driven by morality) — those who seek justice for others even if sacrificing their own needs. Think of some people who have a large superego (big morality) and large id (lots of unacceptable urges and impulses)—their ego is working overtime to figure out how to manage this! Defense Mechanisms According to Freud, conflicts often emerge between the id and superego. The id may want what it wants when it wants it, but gratification of the id is not always possible or morally acceptable. Our ego is trying to navigate this conflict. At times when the conflict becomes too “hot” (stressful) and the ego is unable to resolve it in some way, the individual experiences heightened anxiety. The ego may then use a number of what Freud called defense mechanisms to reduce this anxiety. You can see in this table some of the defense mechanisms Freud described. Let me tell you about some of them. Repression.In this defense mechanism, the individual pushes down the anxiety-inducing urge, thought, or impulse into the unconscious mind and completely out of awareness. This is the ultimate act of “stuffing it”. As an example, an individual may choose to become completely celibate, pushing down any and all threatening sexual impulses. Freud would say these urges/impulses may show themselves in disguised form . . . . more on that later. Denial. A person in denial will refuse to acknowledge the issue, conflict or concern. This is not as extreme as repression, but it is a way of refusing to see the internal conflict. In modern society we often describe the person who is heavy drinker as “in denial”—the desires of the id (to continue to seek pleasure through drinking excessively) are in conflict with the mounting evidence that this behavior is destructive (e.g., losing one’s driver’s license for driving while under the influence, having conflicts with family members, developing a medical condition related to drinking). So, the person in denial refuses to accept the evidence and continues to deny the problem (e.g., “everyone drinks a little,” “it was just that one time,” “you need to chill out and have some fun”). After all, if they accepted the evidence, that would mean a big change—denying the id what it really wants! Reaction Formation. In this defense mechanism Freud posited that an individual acts in the extreme opposite of his or her unconscious impulses, desires, or urges. As one example, an individual who has all sorts of socially unacceptable sexual impulses may become a crusader against pornography! As another example, the person who has same-sex attractions but was raised to believe these are immoral becomes very anti-LGBTQ. By acting in the extreme opposite way, the individual pushes back against those “unacceptable” impulses. Projection. Freud posited that in this defense mechanism the individual manages their unacceptable impulses by putting those impulses off on others. As one example, let’s say your superego says that it is not acceptable to be rageful toward others and yet you unconsciously experience rage and aggressive impulses (id). You can project and think “why is everyone so hostile and angry toward me?!?” (when you are actually the angry one). As another example, let’s say you are heterosexual young lady and you are unconsciously attracted to your best friend’s boyfriend (hard on the superego!). So you project your own attraction onto him and think, “He’s my best friend’s boyfriend, so why is he so flirtatious with me? How inappropriate!” (“It’s not me, it’s him!!”) Displacement. In this defense mechanism, Freud posited that the individual redirects their unacceptable impulses to a “safer” object. As an example, we can think of “kick the dog” behavior. So, you’re super angry at your awful boss and you'd like to kick him where it hurts, but your superego won’t allow it (besides, you’d lose your job). So you’ve got a conflict between your id and superego. So you displace your anger onto a safer object—you go home and kick the dog instead. I’m not saying this is a nice thing to do, but it’s one of those things that can happen. We can think of this at a societal level—instead of being angry at those powerful and successful business owners who fire them due to automation (after all, we shouldn’t feel angry at successful people), workers feel rage at the lower status immigrants who “take our jobs.” Sublimation. In this defense mechanism, Freud suggested that the individual channels his/her unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. For example, think of the young man who is unconsciously struggling with angry, aggressive impulses, so he joins the football team or begins to train in the boxing ring; he’s channeling that aggression in a socially acceptable way. As another example, think of the individual who has lots of sexual impulses, so she decides to be a painter and paints very sensual nude images; Freud would call this sublimation. Or consider the young man who feels hostile toward his older brother and goes into business and earns millions of bucks—showing up that older brother! Sublimation can result in some good things. Intellectualization. Freud suggested that in this defense mechanism the individual separates the intellectual and emotional aspects of a situation to manage emotional reactions. This person then focuses exclusively on the intellectual pieces; repressing the associated emotion. This can be helpful for a surgeon or for many of us trying to manage complex situations. But we can overdo the intellectualization (use it too much) and never really acknowledge or deal with our emotions. In general, these defense mechanisms are hypothesized to be neither bad nor good. However, overuse of one or another can become a problem. Psychosexual Stages This the part of Freud’s theory that came later . . .. it is also more problematic. According to Freud’s theory, over the course of development the individual goes through a series of psychosexual stages in which the experience of pleasure is focused on different regions of the body (“erogenous zones”) and different experiences of navigating these desires and urges. At each of these stages, the individual is also trying to resolve particular conflicts (e.g., to depend or not to depend on others, to take initiative or to remain passive, etc.); this resolution will influence the personality over time. Let’s talk about each of Freud’s psychosexual stages. The oral stage. During this period of development, lasting from about birth to age 2, the child’s gratification is focused on oral stimulation. I think we can all recognize that children at this age put just about everything into the mouth (some things that are quite horrifying and disgusting actually). They explore the world through licking objects, sucking objects, and holding them in their mouth. Freud would say that one of the major conflicts of the oral stage is dependency. Can I depend on others to take care of (feed) me and give me what I need? Or can I not depend on others? The anal stage. During this period of development, lasting from about age 2 to 5, the child is focused on controlling elimination. The child is being potty-trained and learning control over their bladder and bowels. Freud would say that one of the major conflicts of the anal stage is about control. Who is in control? Do I allow others to dictate my activities? Do I hold it in or let it out? Parents and child are set into a battle over control of bodily functions. The phallic stage. During this period of development, lasting from about age 5 to 6, the child is focused on his or her genitals and on his or her own personal pleasure and gratification. It is during this stage that Freud hypothesized that the child undergoes the Oedipal conflict. During the Oedipal conflict, the opposite sex parent becomes an object of desire. Let me back up for a second here and emphasize that Freud was really focusing on male psychosexual development, and admitted later in his life that he did not understand women all that well. So keeping that in mind, let’s move forward. The little boy wishes to possess his mother, but he simultaneously fears his father. Having noticed that girls do not have penises, he fears that his father will remove his (referred to as castration anxiety). I must admit this is where I have some problems with Freud. The Oedipal conflict is ultimately resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as a man and, when he is old enough, focuses his intentions on ultimately finding an adult woman who is just like “dear old mom.” Now Freud extrapolated this to girls and referred to it as the Electra complex. In that case, the girl would like to possess the father because he has a penis while she does not (referred to as penis envy; I think I can actually hear some young women rolling their eyes!!). So, ultimately, she resolves this by identifying with the mother and, as an adult, finding herself a guy with a penis just like “dear old dad.” Yeah, that’s kinda creepy! At this point it would be important to mention Freud’s idea of fixation. Freud thought that if a child was either over-gratified or under-gratified in one of these psychosexual stages, he or she could become stuck or what he called fixated at that stage. This individual keeps trying to gratify the needs of that stage (because they didn’t get enough and are still trying or because they got too much and don’t really want to leave). This kind of fixation can have a powerful impact on personality. For example, individuals with a fixation of the oral stage may have been over-gratified and turn out to be dependent on others to fill their needs, optimistic, and lacking in independence. Those who were under-gratified may be pessimistic, resentful, and lack trust. According to Freud, these kinds of folks have been permanently shaped by their experiences during the oral stage. As another example, individuals with a fixation at the anal stage may have been over-gratified, that is they won the battle of control and may be labeled as “anal-retentive.” In this type of personality, the individual is picky, controlling, obstinate, passive-aggressive, and obsessive. On the other hand, fixation of the anal stage where the child has been under-gratified leads to a character that is messy, under controlled, disorganized, and defiant. The idea for parents is that they needed to help their child navigate these conflicts without over-gratifying or under-gratifying the id. The latency stage. Following the intense conflicts of the phallic stage, the child enters what Freud referred to as latency. This lasts from about age 7 to about age 11. During this period, Freud hypothesized that, due to the overwhelming nature of the phallic stage and associated Oedipal or Elektra conflicts, the child sublimates his or her unconscious urges and desires into socially acceptable activities, which nowadays includes sports, academic pursuits, music, and other learning opportunities. It is during this time that we see boys and girls very segregated by gender in their activities and social pursuits and often thinking that the opposite sex is kind of “gross.” The genital stage. Following latency, the child enters puberty and emerges into the genital stage, where he or she is able to establish healthy heterosexual relationships. Freud considered homosexuality a sign of being stuck in the phallic stage. Now research since that time has not supported the idea that homosexuality is a sign of a personality problem, mental health problem, or a lack of psychological development. Indeed, research suggests little difference between homosexual (gay or lesbian) and heterosexual individuals in terms of mental health. However, as Freud was raised in a very different time, his attitudes toward homosexuality were more reflective of that time and not informed by modern science. Freud’s theory has plenty of detractors, and we will get to that. However, he seems to have been right about some things. Here are three aspects of his theory that have mostly held up. Three Aspects of Freud's Theory That Have Endured First, Freud was probably right in noting that much of our mental life is unconscious. Since his theory was developed, we’ve certainly found lots of evidence that many of our thoughts and behaviors are based on unconscious assumptions, ideas, and biases. We will talk a lot more about this in the social psychology domain. Second, early experiences in childhood do have a critical influence on who we become. These early childhood experiences influence our adult interpersonal relationships and our psychological adjustment. It may be that they have this impact because of attachment and the development of our assumptions and expectations, and not because of the way we traversed Freud’s psychosexual stages. Third, Freud noted that people differ in how their ability to regulate their emotions, thoughts, and desires. I think we have strong evidence that this is the case. I leave you to think about your own opinion about Freud’s theory. Let’s talk about some of Freud's detractors. Many folks think it’s a bunch of hogwash. Here are some of the main criticisms. Primary Criticisms of Freud's Theory First, what data did Freud use in developing his theory? He based it on his own self-analysis, on observing his children, and on interactions with a relatively small number of patients. Many of his patients were diagnosed with “hysteria”. This was a 19th century diagnosis, primarily of women, that included a range of mostly emotional symptoms (anxiety, emotionality, faintness, etc.) and behaviors thought inappropriate at the time (interest in sex, being troublesome to others). It’s not hard to see that it was a culturally and socially-influenced problem. Both male and female theorists have noted that “hysteria” was likely a function of the highly oppressive role that women were assigned in Victorian society. So the data are on a particular malady in a very particular (and peculiar) cultural context as experienced primarily by upper class, White-European women. How generalizable are such data? Second, how do you operationalize the constructs that Freud hypothesized? How would you know if someone was engaging in reaction formation? How would you know if someone was sublimating? How can you measure people’s unconscious motives and urges? It’s really hard to study Freud! Many of his concepts are not testable. Sometimes it seems like psychoanalysis is better at explaining past behavior (you make up a story that works) than it is at predicting future behavior. Third, Freud’s theory has been accused of sexist. This goes beyond the issues raised previously. He has used an understanding or theory based on male development to explain women, and it doesn’t do that very well. Karen Horney was a follower and critic of Freud, and she suggested that rather than women suffering from penis envy MEN suffer from womb envy. Specifically, men have been threatened across millennia by womens’ power and ability to bring new life into the world (to give birth), and so they have pushed women down and sought to control them. MeToo# and a little Freudian Historical Context: To place Freud’s theory fully in context, a few historical notes should added: When Freud was first developing his theory, he noted that many of his patients described early sexual abuse by adults (often fathers). Initially he saw this sexual abuse as a central contributor to mental health problems. He dubbed this the “seduction hypothesis”, and it emphasized the importance of the external environment on development. In this formulation the mind is shaped by experience, specifically sexual abuse. I would argue that even this phrasing (“seduction hypothesis”) is pretty problematic – as if the child was a potentially willing participant in the face of a much more powerful adult. When Freud described his theory it was harshly criticized by his professional peers who could not believe that such things (sexual abuse) happened. In response, Freud changed this theory to focus not on the occurrence of sexual abuse but arguing rather that these reports represented “fantasies” on the part of his patients. And he attributed these to the Oedipal (and Elektra) Complex. Many feminist scholars and researchers consider this “change of heart” an excellent example of “victim blaming” (i.e., “it’s didn’t really happen”, “it’s what they wanted”). Perhaps the term “gaslighting” is somewhat accurate here! There is a long and well-documented history in medicine of ignoring women’s concerns – particularly related to reproductive health – and communicating that the problems are “all in your head”. While Freud is not the only cause here, he certainly contributed. Interestingly and concerningly, Research on childhood sexual abuse makes it clear that This is not an uncommon experience. In the USA, one in 4 girls and 1 in 13 boys experience child sexual abuse. Most often – 91% of the time – cases are perpetrated by someone the child knows well – typically a family member or close family friend – rather than a stranger. This is true of most kinds of sexual violence. There are long term negative impacts on both physical and mental health. The MeToo# movement has focused on the common and negative impact of sexual violence on women, and individuals in the movement have noted the negative impact of sexual violence across the lifespan. This movement has pushed back strongly against the some of Freud’s most prominent ideas. The seven-minute video that follows gives an excellent overview of the main ideas of Sigmund Freud. An added benefit is some fun animation. So let’s move on. Humanistic Perspective During the early part of the last century, Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective and B.F. Skinner’s behavioral perspective were dominant. Freud focused on internal, one could argue unknowable, ideas of the self. On the other hand, the behaviorists emphasized the external environment and its influence on the individual, in some ways negating the whole idea of personality. The humanistic perspective arose in opposition to these two ideas. The humanistic perspective focused on each individual’s conscious and subjective perception of him or herself and on his or her goals and aspirations. It was a very positive approach focusing on healthy adjustment, emphasizing both human potential and the idea that humans are inherently good. Abraham Maslow was one of the leaders and founders of the humanistic movement. Take a look at the model he developed that emphasized human motivation. This is known as the hierarchy of needs. This model continues to be very influential today! Maslow's hierarchy of needs Source:Maslows Hierarchy of Needs by BetterBizIdeas is licensed under CC BY 2.0 At the bottom of the hierarchy are biological needs, including food, water, and shelter. Maslow would argue that human beings who are not able to access these basic requirements are not free to pursue higher-level goals or needs. I think he was correct; as an example, homeless people often are living day to day just trying to find the next meal and a safe place to sleep, and they often don’t have time to pursue a job, the arts, an education, or any higher-level goals. At the second level, individuals are pursuing safety. They want law and order, predictability, etc. At the third level, humans seek love and belongingness. They want to be a part of a family, community, or larger group. At the next level, they want to feel good about themselves and their place in the world. They want esteem from others and acknowledgment for who they are. As you go up the hierarchy of needs from here, you have cognitive needs (to develop knowledge and understanding) and aesthetic needs (to develop art, music, and beauty), and the need for self-actualization (that is, becoming your true best self). At the very top is transcendence, where individuals try to help others become more self-actualized. Maslow would say that those at the top are few in number and we can think of examples like Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr. as folks in the transcendent stage. I don’t expect you to remember all the stages, but I do want you to recognize that most basic needs have to be met before one can strive for higher-level needs. It’s easy to be critical of very poor people for not having longer-term or more lofty goals (like going to college or starting their own business), but when you’re living day to day just to survive, those goals are a real luxury that you can seldom afford. We start out being motivated by the things at the bottom; when these needs are met, we can move up the hierarchy. cartoon depicting positive self-regard Source Another important humanistic psychologist was Carl Rogers. He developed his own theory on personality and an approach to psychotherapy. Like Maslow he emphasized each person’s inherent worth and tendency to strive to be one’s best self. Carl Rogers referred to this tendency to strive to be the best self as the actualizing tendency. Rogers also posited that over the course of development one develops a self-concept, a set of expectations, beliefs, and perceptions about the self; this self-concept can be overall positive or negative. If a child is raised in conditions of what Rogers called conditional positive regard, they tend to develop a more negative sense of self. What is conditional positive regard? It’s the idea that you are only valued and loved if you fit a certain set of standards and expectations (what he called conditions of worth). Perhaps your family will only love you if you go to medical school. Or perhaps your family will only care about you and value you if you make a lot of money. Those are examples of conditional positive regard. I remember watching the Winter Olympics once, and a skater had just completed her performance, tripped, and fallen during one of those almost-impossible jumps. She came off the ice, and a television interviewer stuck a microphone in her face and asked how she felt. Her response was, “I just want my family and friends to still love me even though I don’t have a gold medal.” Wow, this young lady really experiences conditional positive regard! Most of us will never have a gold medal, and we all should be loved and valued by our family and friends anyway! On the other hand, a child who was raised with what Carl Rogers dubbed UNconditional positive regard is one who is valued and loved unconditionally and accepted for who he or she is, regardless of what choices he or she makes. The person who experiences unconditional positive regard develops a positive self-concept—a sense that one is valued and loved for who they are. This is not to say that parents can’t disapprove of a specific childhood behavior! If I throw something at my little sister, my parents would be well within their rights to say, “We don’t throw things at people. It’s very unkind!” But that’s a lot different from saying, “Look at what an awful girl you are. How can you be so mean to your sister? What kind of person are you?” We can approve of and value the person while not accepting specific types of behavior. The humanistic theory has been criticized on many counts. First, it’s hard to validate or test scientifically any of the predictions from humanistic theory. How do we measure unconditional positive regard? How do we measure an actualizing tendency? This is really hard to examine scientifically. As much influence as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has had on theories of motivation, there is very little evidence for it. Second, many psychologists think that this optimistic view of humanity, with all of its inherent goodness and potential, may be just a wee bit too optimistic. Maybe human nature just isn’t that positive! On the other hand, humanistic theory has had a powerful impact on psychotherapy, education, parenting practices, and business management. It’s also pretty interesting thinking about what motives drive our own behavior. Social Cognitive Perspective Now the social cognitive perspective differs a lot from the psychoanalytic perspective, the humanistic perspective, and classical behaviorism. The social cognitive perspective emphasizes conscious and self-regulated behavior and integrates experimental findings. This is one of those perspectives that we really can evaluate scientifically. One of the leading thinkers in the social cognitive perspective was Albert Bandura. Albert Bandura "File:Albert Bandura Psychologist.jpg" by bandura@stanford.edu is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Bandura is known for his research on observational learning, but he is also known for his work on this particular perspective on personality. As we grow up, we engage in observational learning. Observational learning is not just about acquiring new skills, but it’s also about acquiring expectations for social relationships, for understanding social values, and for determining the causes and effects of behavior in our social world. People learn about consequences and social norms, and they learn to regulate their behavior in response to these demands. While children are growing up, their parents and other caregivers are often regulating their behavior (think about bedtimes, mealtimes, inquiries about whether they need to go to the bathroom or have done their homework), but over time the child is increasingly able to regulate his or her own behavior. This regulation occurs as a function of both observational learning (watching others) and direct experience. As children grow up, they develop their self-system. The self-system includes cognitive skills and abilities, beliefs, and attitudes about the self and others. One important element of the self-system is what Bandura described as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the beliefs people hold about their ability to handle particular kinds of situations. Do they feel competent or do they doubt their ability? Now you probably have high self-efficacy in some situations and not others, as we all do. Self-efficacy is very situation dependent. Transforming Education: Importance of Self-Efficacy For example, I have high self-efficacy in the kitchen. I can cook! If you want me to make you a delicious dinner, you come over to my place! On the other hand, I have very low self-efficacy when it comes to fixing any electronic device whatsoever. I just have no confidence in that realm. I still really don’t know how to use the equipment in my basement to watch Netflix! Can you believe that? I actually ask my young adult children to come down and set it up for me every time I want to watch anything! Kind of sad really—I’ve got LOW self-efficacy in this area of my life. Think about yourself. What are areas where you really feel able to handle things—where is your self-efficacy high? Where are some areas where your self-efficacy isn’t quite so high? Some of you may have high self-efficacy when it comes to writing a term paper. Some of you may have high self-efficacy when it comes to doing math problems. Our self-efficacy is very individual and very situation-specific. This leads me to Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism. elements of social Cognitive Perspective If you look at the corners of this triangular model in the diagram above, you can see his emphasis on cognition (our thoughts), behaviors (what we do), and environments (the settings we find ourselves in or place ourselves in). He referred to this model as reciprocal determinism because each of these pieces influences the other—the environment influences our thoughts and actions; our thoughts influence our actions and the environments we choose; and our thoughts and the environments we choose influence our actions, etc. So let me give you an example. When I was in college, I had low self-efficacy about math. Unfortunately, I was raised during the time when it was communicated pretty clearly to women that they weren’t good at math and that there was no point in trying. Even more unfortunately, I believed those messages! So I generally avoided math at all costs. You can see that my cognitive factors (that is, self-efficacy about math) influenced my behavior and the environments that I chose—I avoided higher-level math and signed up for other classes. When I became a psychology major, I knew that I would have to take statistics (ugh). I was forced to engage in a different behavior (doing an activity that involved a lot of math) and choose a different environment (stats courses). Interestingly, I did very well in statistics, found that it made lots of sense to me, and got the best grade in the class! Wow, my behavior (and its consequences) now changed the cognitive factor. I was no longer someone with low self-efficacy for math. My self-efficacy changed as a function of my experience. This is an example of how when you try something new, it can sometimes change your perception of yourself in some pretty radical ways. Try to think of some examples of your own self-efficacy about a particular situation and where it might have changed over time. One of the things I find in trying to understand the material in this section (and throughout the class) is that if you can think of a personal example, you will remember the material a lot better (it makes it more real!). Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem I would like to make a distinction between self-efficacy and self-esteem. Self-esteem is your evaluation of your own self-worth and value, and it is influenced by your internalization of how society values you and your attributes. Self-esteem is more of an overall evaluation. Alternatively, self-efficacy is about your ability to handle the demands of a particular situation. You can have low self-efficacy and high self-esteem. For example, I have low self-efficacy about being able to figure out electronic things, but so what? I don’t really care and I like myself anyway. I think I’m a pretty nice and valuable person with lots of skills and many good friends. On the other hand, you can have high self-efficacy and low self-esteem. You may think, “I am very capable of completing a variety of complicated math problems (high self-efficacy), but I really don’t like myself as a person and think I’m kind of a loser (low self-esteem).” So, as you can see, self-efficacy and self-esteem are really very different ideas. Although to be fair, if you have low self-efficacy in just about everything you do, you probably have low self-esteem. Our self-esteem is based partly on viewing ourselves as capable in areas that we value and think are important. Now in evaluating the social cognitive perspective, one of its key strengths is that it is based squarely on research. Many studies have been done to test predictions of the social cognitive perspective, and that’s a real strength. On the other hand, the social cognitive perspective has also been criticized. Criticisms include its exclusive focus on conscious and rational factors and its lack of emphasis on unconscious, emotional, and irrational aspects of personality. Trait Perspective So far we have reviewed psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social-cognitive perspectives. So let’s talk about the trait perspective—although, I’m not sure that the trait perspective is really a theory at all but rather an approach to understanding personality. According to the trait perspective, each individual’s character (personality) is a unique combination of personality traits, which are relatively stable and enduring behavioral predispositions (tendencies to behave/react in a particular way). The trait approach has focused on identifying, measuring, and describing these individual differences/tendencies. More recently the trait approach has been used to uncover potential biological factors impacting personality. One of the big questions for the trait theorist is, “How many traits are there?” If you are describing yourself or a friend, you might think of a lot of different adjectives (traits)—outgoing or introverted, upbeat or negative, funny or serious, quirky or “mainstream,” risk-taking or risk-averse, etc. However, some of these traits are related! Trait theorists would call these surface traits, but maybe we can boil these down to just a few source traits that underlie all the surface traits—core aspects of personality. How many source traits would there be? A number of investigators have tried to answer this question. Theories Relating to Source Traits 16 PF Herman Cattell was born in Great Britain and moved to the United States. He used a statistical method known as factor analysis to identify 16 personality factors that he thought were particularly important. So how does factor analysis work? Well, you input into the program information on tons of self-reported personality tests, and then you “boil them down” using a statistical analysis into a smaller number of core factors. Cattell conducted these analyses and came up with 16 key personality dimensions. He developed a questionnaire called the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). You can take the 16 PF to learn about your own personality. Each of Cattell’s personality factors are dimensions, that is to say, they are continuous variables and you can fall somewhere along these dimensions for each. So, for example, the first one was reserved/unsociable to outgoing/sociable. Where do you think you might fall on this dimension? Another was trusting to suspicious. Where do you think you might fall on that dimension? Another was undisciplined to controlled. Where do you think you might fall on that dimension? Each of us could be described using these 16 personality factors. Hans Eysenck's Ideas Eysenck's theory of personality Adapted from Research Gate/fig2/ Some theorists thought that 16 was just too many personality factors. One of these people was Hans Eysenck, who was a German-born British psychologist. Eysenck emphasized two personality traits that he thought were particularly important—neuroticism (the degree to which one is influenced by emotions) and extroversion (the degree to which one seeks out and is gratified by social relationships). If you think of these two dimensions and where you fall on each, you get a sense of your personality. So let’s think of them as illustrated in the graph below. We have one dimension, extroversion, crossing the other dimension, neuroticism. Here are some examples. A person high on neuroticism and low on extroversion might be the painter who perhaps spends a lot of time alone and is strongly impacted by feelings and emotions. A person high on neuroticism and high on extroversion might be the actor who likes to be with people but worries a lot about his or her self-image. A person low on neuroticism and low on extroversion might be the stereotypical computer programmer who likes to spend a lot of time alone working on computer code and has poor social skills. Aperson low on neuroticism and high on extroversion might be the self-confident politician. Now I gave these examples using blatant stereotypes and with humor, so please don’t be offended (we’ll talk about stereotypes later and their negative consequences). I have plenty of friends who are computer programmers with great social skills and lots of artistic people don’t tend to be that neurotic. Stereotypes—ugh. Although Eysenck’s work strongly influenced thinking about personality traits, many of you might ask, “Is two enough?!?” Many theorists aren’t convinced. Five Factor Model Some researchers speculated that those two personality traits (extroversion and neuroticism), while important, don’t tell the whole story. Now the dominant model is the five-factor model of personality or the Big Five, which postulates that there are five basic source traits. These source traits are extroversion, neuroticism (let’s give Eysenck his due), openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. These form the basis, the fundamental building blocks, of personality. Openness to experience is the degree to which one welcomes novel experiences or likes the same old things and also includes inquisitiveness. I think about my mother, who was high in openness to experience. She always wanted to travel, visit new places, try new foods, and read National Geographic! I contrast this to my dear friend’s mother, who is fairly low in openness to experience. She likes the same restaurants over and over again, has a more limited diet, and believes that everything she needs to be happy is right on Long Island! Agreeableness is just what you would think. The agreeable person is easy to get along with, kind, empathic, and sympathetic; where the less agreeable person is, well, less easy to get along with, etc. Conscientiousness is a person’s sense of responsibility and is a big predictor of job performance and success. The highly conscientious person gets the job done, is very reliable, and sees things through. The person low on conscientiousness tends not to show up, is less reliable, and really doesn’t get the thing done. Think of yourself on all of these dimensions. What kind of person are you? Where are you on extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness? We are all different. Criticisms of Trait Theory Although traits may be remarkably stable over time, there has been a debate about the degree to which they are stable across situations. Is our behavior more a function of situations or personality? This is one of the great debates in psychology. It’s likely that our behavior really is a function of who we are (traits) and the situations in which we find ourselves. Another criticism of trait theory is that it’s not really a theory. How do these traits emerge and what determines them? There has been some research to suggest that some of these trait differences may be due to genetics and to physiological differences between individuals. So there you have it. These four approaches, or perspectives, have been used to help us understand individual differences among human beings. This is personality psychology—Although there’s a lot more to learn. Do You Remember? Test your memory by matching the terms to their definitions. Social Introduction Social psychologists study how people think, feel, and behave in social situations. In thinking about social psychology, I’m going to emphasize two broad areas. First, social cognition is the study of the mental processes involved in making sense out of our complex social environment. Second, social influence is the study of the impact of situational factors and the social environment on individual behavior. Let’s get started! Overview: What is Social Psychology Social Cognition Person Perception One of the first things we have to do when we meet new people is to size them up, form judgments, and draw conclusions about their characteristics, motives, and goals. This is a process known as person perception. Person perception is an active process, where we are collecting new information about people on an ongoing basis. Your perception of another person is going to depend on their characteristics, your characteristics, and the situation in which you find yourself. Here are some of the key principles in person perception. Person Perception Key Principles It’s subjective. Your impressions of others are unique to you and are not necessarily a response to their actual characteristics. You and your friends may perceive the same person in very different ways. Goals will determine the kinds of information you collect about other people. For example, if you are looking for a prom date, you may be looking for certain kinds of information. Perhaps you will want someone who’s attractive, fun to be with, knows how to dance, and might impress your friends. On the other hand, if you are looking for a lab partner in chemistry, you may be looking for very different kinds of information. Perhaps you will want someone who’s really smart, scientifically oriented, collaborative, and well-organized. You may not particularly care about whether they are fun or attractive or able to dance! Social norms. In most situations we are judging people against our social norms—our expectations for appropriate behavior in particular social situations. These norms differ greatly depending on the situation. For example, a person who behaves in a particular way at a sports game may be judged very harshly for behaving in that same way at a wedding. Self-perception. How you see yourself influences how you see others. For example, if you’re a very self-confident person, you may develop favorable impressions of other highly self-confident people. If you’re not feeling so good about yourself and have low self-confidence, those kinds of people may not look quite so positive or inviting. Social Categorization One of the things that we often do is use mental shortcuts when we are making judgments about other people. Social categorization is the process of placing people into groups based on some kind of shared characteristic (for example, race, gender, sports affiliation, religious background, occupation). One thing to remember is that when we’re perceiving people, we’re taking in a huge amount of information, so we tend to take mental shortcuts. Social categorization is one of the shortcuts. It may be efficient in certain ways, but it can lead to assumptions about others that are quite inaccurate or completely inaccurate! Related to social categorization are implicit personality theories. An implicit personality theory is a type of schema. Schemas are those sets of knowledge about particular topics. These schemas help us organize information in memory. An implicit personality theory is a schema about what attributes, traits, and characteristics hang together. A common implicit personality theory is about physical attractiveness. People often think that physically attractive people also have many other positive characteristics, like personality and intelligence. Research suggests that those gorgeous people really have few personality differences from the rest of us; so, the physical attractiveness idea is not really borne out. So, we go around perceiving people in the world around us. What else are we doing when we are perceiving the social world? Attributions In addition to perceiving people, we are trying to understand the causes of their behavior, and we are also trying to figure out our own behavior on an ongoing basis. Attribution is the mental process of figuring out the causes of other people’s and our own behavior. Researchers have identified three biases that frequently come up when we are making attributions about the causes of behavior. First is the fundamental attribution error. This is our tendency to see the behavior of others as due to internal, stable, and personal characteristics; we tend to underplay the role of the situation a person is in when understanding their behavior. So, for example, when you are driving and another person cuts in front of you, you may be more likely to say, “What a selfish person!” rather than, “She must be running late this morning.” We tend to see behavior as evidence of the personality rather than the situation the person is in. Second is the actor-observer discrepancy. When we are looking at our own behavior, we tend to attribute it to situational causes, whereas when we are looking at the behavior of others, we tend to attribute it to internal personality causes. When we are driving and cut in front of someone else, we may be likely to say, “The traffic today is horrible, I’m running late, and I really needed to get into that lane.” When we see the other person cut in front of us, we tend to think, “That person is a terrible driver with little regard for other people’s needs.” We use one set of rules for understanding our behavior and another for the other person! In some ways this is understandable, as we have much more information on our own situation than that of others. Third is the self-serving bias. This is when we are judging our own behavior. The self-serving bias is our tendency to attribute our successes to internal causes and our failures to external causes. If I get a bad grade on a test, I am likely to think, “The professor is terrible and this exam was very unfair”; when I get a good grade on a test, I am likely to think, “I’m such a smart person and I really am academically inclined!” I give myself credit for my successes but blame the situation for my failures. Now we may laugh at the self-serving bias in some ways, but it really is a sign of good health. Dr. Dan Gilbert studied these sorts of biases, and he refers to them as part of the “psychological immune system.” Given that we live in a world where we are constantly challenged, we could let these situations make us feel bad about ourselves and damage our mental health. The psychological immune system includes those mental processes that help us maintain a positive image of ourselves, including the self-serving bias.. Think of it this way, you live in a world that’s ready to knock you down, so you do things to keep yourself standing tall. This is the psychological immune system at work. Interestingly, people who have depression do just the opposite. They tend to attribute their successes to situational factors (e.g., “I guess I just got lucky that the professor gave an easy exam”) and their failures to personality characteristics (e.g., “I guess I really am pretty stupid”). One of the things we do in therapy with people with depression is to try to change that negative way of thinking—boosting that psychological immune system. Attribution Theory Attitude Formation and Expression As we go about the social world, we are also tasked with evaluating objects, people, and issues. We are forming attitudes. Our attitudes toward particular objects, people, or issues may be positive, negative, or ambivalent (that is mixed). Those who study attitudes regard them as having a number of characteristics. We can talk about the ABC model for understanding attitudes. 15 ABC model of attitudes A is for Affective—how we feel. Our attitudes are influenced by our emotions about the topic at hand. B is for Behavioral—how we act. C is for Cognitive—how we think. So we can think of attitude formation from this ABC model. Let’s apply the model using the example of attitudes toward gun control. You may all have different attitudes on gun control, and my goal here is not to say whether they are wrong or right! You have your own attitudes and opinions. So, let’s think of both the pro-gun control and anti-gun control position through the ABC model. The person who has anti-gun control attitudes is likely to have certain kinds of affective reactions. She may feel afraid for her family’s safety. She is likely to have certain kinds of behaviors, such as keeping a loaded gun at hand or at home for protection or lobbying her congressperson to vote against gun control measures. She is likely to have certain cognitive reactions or beliefs, for example, “guns make people safer.” Now let’s think about the person who is pro-gun control. He may fear that an accident with a gun could happen—an affective component (fear). He may refuse to have guns in his home and make sure his children only play at houses where the families do not have guns—a behavioral component. He may believe that guns make us less safe—a cognitive or belief component. So, the idea here is that attitudes are not just our thoughts, but they involve feelings, behaviors, and thoughts (affective, behavioral, and cognitive). Do We Act Out Our Attitudes? We may have attitues about many things, but we don’t necessarily act on our attitudes. There’s actually research to suggest that people’s attitudes are not necessarily a very good predictor of their behavior. So when do we act in accordance with our attitudes? We are most likely to act on our attitudes in the following situations: When our attitudes are very extreme. Let’s say that I am very anti-gun control. I have an extreme attitude that there should be no controls on guns, because any controls violate our Second Amendment (of the Constitution) rights. I may be more likely to join the NRA (National Rifle Association) and own guns than someone with a less extreme attitude. Let’s say that I’m a very pro-gun control advocate. I have an extreme attitude that all guns are dangerous and should be strictly limited. I may join organizations that lobby to limit guns, and I may attend marches against guns. I don’t mean to say that either of these attitudes is wrong, but you’re more likely to act out your attitudes when you have a more extreme position. Unfortunately, this means that in the political world, those in the middle are less likely to be involved in the debate! Our debates get framed by the more extreme positions. Those who examine these issues are Political Psychologists. When our attitudes have been formed through direct personal experience. Let’s say that I defended my family against an intruder by threatening that intruder with a gun. I’ve had an up-close personal experience where guns made me safer; I’m more likely to act on my attitudes in support of guns. Perhaps I contact my congressperson to support gun rights legislation. On the other hand, let’s say that I experienced a terrible tragedy where someone close to me was killed in an accident with a gun. I’ve had an up-close personal experience where guns made me feel a lot less safe. I’m more likely to act on my attitudes against guns. Maybe I contact my congressperson to support legislation limiting guns. When we are particularly knowledgeable. When we have a lot of knowledge, we are more likely to follow up on it. If I can tell you all about different gun laws in the United States, the history of guns, the different types of guns, rates of violent crime, etc., I’m probably more likely to act on my attitudes about guns, either pro or con. When we have a particular personal interest in the matter. Let’s say that I’m a gun collector, I am probably more likely to act on my attitudes about guns. When we expect that other people around us will respond favorably. If I expect others to applaud me for my involvement in movements to either limit guns or to promote access to guns, I am more likely to get involved. We are all influenced by our expectations for how we will be received and either supported or frowned upon by others. So, we now have an idea of when our attitudes are likely to be expressed, that is, when attitudes influence behavior. But does it ever go the other way around? Are there times when our behavior changes our attitudes? This may seem like a strange question, as we frequently think of attitudes influencing behavior, but not the other way around. However, it can happen. Let’s talk about cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant state of affairs where two different thoughts or ideas are inconsistent. It can also occur when our behavior and our beliefs/ideas don’t match up. Llet’s think of some examples: Cognitive Dissonance Examples Let’s say that you have a very strong attitude about cheating on tests—you think that cheating is a terrible, immoral behavior that undermines the value of your college education and your own personal accomplishments. But then you find yourself taking a very hard class, let’s say chemistry, and there is this one girl in the class who is what I will call the curve breaker—while everyone else is getting a C on the exams, she always comes out with an A. It’s hard to like this girl! One day on a particularly difficult exam, you notice that she is sitting right in front of you and you can easily see her exam paper. Almost without thinking, you find yourself looking at her answers and copying them. After the exam you experience that awful uncomfortable state of affairs that is known as cognitive dissonance. You have this conflict inside—“I can’t stand cheaters, but I am one.” So what do you do to resolve this nasty internal state known as cognitive dissonance? You may change your attitude. You begin to think, “Well, in general cheating is pretty bad, but in some situations it’s understandable, particularly in courses that are designed to make people fail.” What’s happened here is that you adjusted your attitude to be more consistent with your behavior. So cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude change. This can happen when our attitude and our behavior are inconsistent or it can happen when two attitudes are inconsistent. As another example, some years ago same-sex marriage became legal in the state of Massachusetts and was followed across the United States. During that time, many people were still ambivalent about same-sex marriage. For many years of our history, people who were gay were frequently “in the closet.” So, many heterosexual people thought that they didn’t know any gay people! Many of them did not support same-sex marriage, as they knew almost no gay people (or so they thought). As more and more people came out of the closet, heterosexual people were more likely to know a gay person. One of the biggest predictors of support for same-sex marriage was knowing someone who is gay! I think this is an interesting example of cognitive dissonance. If the person said, “Well, I don’t believe in same-sex marriage,” this butted up against the idea of equality of opportunity (or in this case, “my friend has a right to get married just like I do”). To resolve this cognitive dissonance, people changed their attitude about same-sex marriage. I’m not saying this is the only factor that contributed, but I think it may have been an important one. Prejudice We can define prejudice as negative attitudes toward a particular social group. Research suggests the prejudice is often based on an exaggerated notion that members of that particular social group are very different from members of our own social group. So, what has social psychology told us about the nature of prejudice? Here are some major findings: Major Findings Prejudice is based on a type of social categorization known as a stereotype. This stereotype includes characteristics that are associated (at least in the mind of the person holding the stereotype) with all members and that are often unrelated to the actual objective criteria for the group. For example, we may think of particular groups as being “violent,” “sneaky,” or “lazy,” although none of these are objective criteria for defining the group. Sometimes people think that “positive” stereotypes are fine. I would argue that they are not; and research suggests that they can have many ill effects. Nobody really wants to be stereotyped, as they’d rather be taken as an individual rather than as some representative of a group. For example, I think of a friend of mine who was a tall black man, and it was assumed that he was therefore good at basketball. But he was terrible at basketball, and he did not enjoy people assuming that he was good at it! Being good at basketball is not a negative stereotype, but if it doesn’t fit the person, it feels pretty uncomfortable. Another example is the stereotype that Asian individuals are good at math; these types of “positive” stereotypes can actually have negative effects on performance! Again, better to be evaluated as an individual. One of the effects of stereotyped thinking is it affects what we do see and what we don’t see. Take a look at the slide below. It illustrates what happens to information when we have prejudice based on stereotypes. As you can see, when we get information that is consistent with that stereotype, we tend to notice and remember it, and the prejudice grows stronger. On the other hand, when we are presented with information that is inconsistent, we are less likely to notice and remember it, and our prejudice is less likely to be affected by it. Overall, we tend to look for information that confirms the previous bias. Prejudice and the processing of information Moving From Stereotype Tendency to Full-on Prejudice—How Does This Happen? There are a number of tendencies at play. Categorizing people into in-groups and out-groups. An in-group is the one that you belong to—“us.” An out-group is the one you don’t belong to—“them.” Separating the world into “us” and “them” makes it a lot easier for the “us”es to see the “them”s as very different. This is one of the tendencies we can drift into. Out-group homogeneity effect. There is also a tendency to see “them” as very similar to one another. “They are all like that,” “we (the in-group members) are different from one another, but they are all the same,” and the extreme “they all look alike.” These are examples of the out-group homogeneity effect. People look less like individuals and more like a threatening homogeneous mob. In-group bias. This is the tendency to see “us” as superior to “them.” We may be more moral, more creative, more principled, more intelligent, etc. (at least in our own minds). One example of in-group bias is something called ethnocentrism or a belief that our particular ethnic group is superior to others and therefore the standard against which all others are judged. It is not hard to think about times in history when other cultures were conquered because they were seen as “savages”—an extreme example of ethnocentrism. Ultimately, prejudicial attitudes fit into the ABC model. There are affective (emotional) components, and this usually involves fear of (feeling threatened by) the other group. One feels threatened by the outsiders (the out-group) and fears that one’s way of life is under assault. There are behavioral components: prejudice often leads to discrimination, which can range from mildly demeaning language and behavior all the way to physical threats and worse. There are also cognitive components, including beliefs about the others’ deficits and one’s own superiority. I think one of the most important things to remember about prejudice is that it is ultimately something that we can all engage in. It is likely that we all do regularly! We have a tendency as human beings to engage in social categorization, leading to the development of stereotypes (type of schema). These stereotypes then guide what we notice and what we remember. So rather than saying, “No, not me, I’m not prejudiced!” we would be better served to look inside of ourselves on a regular basis and think about our social categories, our assumptions, and our biases. Stereotype Threat kids of different races in classroom In thinking about prejudice and stereotypes, we often think about what leads people to develop these, but we might also question what their impact is on individuals. Discrimination is the result of behaviors that others engage in toward out-group members that deny them opportunities and/or rights. Stereotypes can have more subtle effects as well. Most of us, and I would say all of us, are subject to some stereotypes. Here are some common stereotypes: women are bad at math; African Americans are poor students; Latinos are best at manual labor; white men are not as athletic as some of the groups; Jews are focused on making money. These are all stereotypes that are unfair and extreme. None of us would want to be a victim of this kind of stereotyping! Are you aware of stereotypes that are directed at groups to which you belong? How might people stereotype you? What happens to us when we are the subject of one of these or many of the other nasty stereotypes out there in the world? Does being the object of the stereotype impact us? Research suggests that it does. I’d like for you to watch the following video about something we call stereotype threat. Escaping the Threat... When Does Stereotype Threat Occur? Stereotype threat occurs when individuals are cued or prompted to remember their group identification and associated stereotypes and then to conform to these stereotypes. Experiments by Katz (United States) and Watson (London) found that when Black students were given tests, they performed lower when they were told the tests were a measure of intelligence. The particular term “stereotype threat” was first utilized by Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson (1995) when they conducted a series of experiments showing that Black college students performed more poorly than white students on standardized tests when their race was emphasized, but performed better and equivalent with whites when race was not emphasized. The cue may be as simple as noticing that you are the only one of your group in the room (e.g., the only African American, the only woman, the only person of color, the only international student, the only elderly person, etc.) or being asked to note your age, gender, or ethnic/racial background on the test before you begin taking it. This may activate the negative stereotype in your head and change your performance. group of students from HBO's show Dear White PeopleFrom HBO's show, Dear White People What are Some Impacts of Stereotype Threat? Decreased performance. This is one I’ve already mentioned. Although IQ is fluid and can vary from test to test, it can certainly be impacted by stereotype threat. Attributing failure to the self. As an example, women under stereotype threat have been shown to attribute their failure to individual factors more so than men. They may tend to assume something that they’ve done was wrong. Reactance. As I noted previously, individuals performed worse when stereotypes were “primed”—where they were cued to attend to these stereotypes at the outset. This may be especially true for high-achieving individuals. Ironic effects. Sadly, stereotype threat results in individuals behaving in a manner opposite to what they may have intended. For example, whites who were told that they were going to discuss race with Black students chose to sit further away. Self-handicapping. Stereotype threat may lead individuals to create barriers to which they can attribute their possible failure, including not preparing or not using a lot of effort in completing the tasks and thus leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Task discounting or questioning the validity of the task or trait being assessed. Women who are good in math were likely to say that the test was an inaccurate measure of their ability when under stereotype threat. Distancing the self from the stereotyped group. Individuals may express less interest in activities stereotypically associated with their group or stay away from a group member who might confirm a stereotype. Changing professional identities and aspirations. Not expressing interest in fields of study or careers where they face stereotype threat (even though such fields might come with greater monetary reward or be associated with higher social status). Women are less likely than men to go into computer science, for example. Contemplating switching career paths because they face stereotype threat in their area. For example, undergraduate females in majors dominated by men reported higher levels of stereotype threat and were more likely to think about changing their majors. Combating Stereotype Threats Think Back to the Video Remember the video from the previous page? (If not, go back and take a look.) What were some of the examples of stereotypes that the young people reported had impacted their behavior via stereotype threat? One young man noted how being the only white athlete in a competition reminded him of stereotypes of white men not being as athletic, and how he had to fight that stereotype and still do his best. Another student in the video noted how she was the only Black woman in many of her courses at Stanford and this made her more anxious about her performance. Stereotype threat can actually increase the likelihood that one will confirm that stereotype! Who’s Vulnerable to Stereotype Threat? Everyone!! Although this may happen more frequently to groups about whom there are many stereotypes, most of us belong to some groups that are stereotyped, so we may all be vulnerable to the effects of stereotype threat. Think about the stereotypes for your own group(s). The following factors can also influence one’s vulnerability. Membership in a group Caring about doing well in the stereotyped area* Extent to which you identify with the group* Awareness of the stigma affiliated with one’s group Belief that one will be judged based on stereotypes How to Combat Stereotype Threat black girl dreaming A number of approaches can be used to counter stereotype threats. Actions such as the following meet that requirement: Self-affirmation – remind yourself of your characteristics, skills and strengths; view yourself as an individual. Find role models/mentors. Surround yourself with a diverse group of individuals so that you reduce your likelihood of being the only representative of a group. Remember that there are common difficulties that everyone might experience while completing a task. View skills/intelligence as growing and changeable, not fixed. We call this a growth mindset!! Positive Stereotypes We’ve talked a lot about negative stereotypes, but what if there is a positive stereotype about your group? Interestingly, having a positive stereotype about your group can also have an impact on you, but this time in a positive direction. This is known as stereotype boost. For example, some research has shown that Asian students may benefit when asked their race/ethnicity prior to taking an exam. There are many stereotypes of Asian students as particularly smart and capable academically, and they may benefit from this stereotype in an academic situation. However, how much you identify with the group may impact how much of the stereotype threat or stereotype boost you may experience. If you have high identity with the group, you can experience more of each—more stereotype threat from being reminded of the negative stereotype and more stereotype boost when reminded of the positive stereotype. All in all, stereotypes can have a big impact on all of us. Social Influence Social cognition focuses on the mental processes involved in helping people understand the social world. In social influence we are interested in the impact of situations and other people on individual behavior. We are going to spend the rest of module five focused on social influence. Let's think about a little history. Social psychology research began to rise in prominence following World War II. During this period, the atrocities committed by human beings against others who were perceived of as different made many people wonder how human beings could behave in this way toward one another. Social psychologists sought to understand some of the factors involved. Conformity Solomon Asch Solomon Asch D-janous [CC BY-SA 4.0] One construct that psychologist became interested in studying was that of conformity. How could people conform to ideas and behaviors that were blatantly wrong or false? One of the people who began to study conformity, was Solomon Asch. He was an American social psychologist who did pioneering work. What do we mean by conformity? Conformity is when one adjusts one’s behavior, beliefs, and attitudes to fit with others' expectations and group norms. Conformity can be in response to real group pressure or imagined group pressure. So what did Solomon Asch do? He used a very simple task to try to study conformity. I think his study designs are an interesting example of how social psychologists work. Asch had participants come to his lab and told them that they would be working with a group of other participants on a perceptual task where they would judge the length of some lines. The participants were told that they would be shown a target line and were to indicate which of three lines was the same length. It was a relatively simple task. Interestingly enough only one of the “participants” in the group was an actual subject in the experiment, and all the other participants were “confederates” (people who were actually on the researcher's team). The confederates all gave their responses first, and then the actual subject gave his last (note that all Asch’s subjects were male. So what would the actual subject do when everyone else in the group said something blatantly wrong? If the subject could clearly see that the two lines were of different length and the other members of the group insisted that they were the same, would he “conform” to the group opinion? Or would the subject disagree with the group? It was an interesting way to study conformity. Asch also included a control group who did not experience this social situation but responded to the items alone. There were 12 total trials (the participants made 12 judgments). So what did Ash find? He found that 75% of participants went with the wrong group decision at least once (they conformed to perceived group pressure) and 25% never did so; overall, across 12 trials, 36% of responses conformed to the wrong answer. Those in the control condition gave a wrong answer about 1% of the time. Based on his post-experiment interviews with participants, he concluded that there were two main reasons that people conformed: The first is what we call normative social influences. People conform because they want to be accepted by others. In other words, we conform because we want people like us! The second is what he we call informational social influence. Particularly when we are not sure of our perceptions, we rely on others to provide us additional information. How many of you have ever been unsure of what you were saying and so asked someone else to confirm it? Probably most of us. So the idea of informational social influence is that we conform because we want to be correct. Conclusions and Limitations Now one thing that is important is that there may be powerful cultural factors that impact conformity. For one thing, conformity has decreased in our society since the 1950s, which is when Solomon Asch did a lot of his work. People may be less likely to conform now. That said, it is important to point out that even in the Asch experiment most people did not conform most of the time – there were 12 trials for each participant, and only 5% conformed regularly (on all trials); a little over 36% conformed in the majority of trials; 25% never did and the rest conformed on some trials only. There are likely to be BIG individual differences in conformity. Indeed, although Asch’s studies appeared to underscore the power of conformity, one could also argue that 95% of participants refused to conform on at least one occasion! Perhaps we could say that lack of conformity was the norm! There is also a lot of research to suggest that the degree of conformity may vary greatly by culture. Our culture in the United States is a very individualistic culture. We value the individual, independence, self-expression, and nonconformity. Think of the image of the cowboy riding out onto the range, doing his own thing, being his own man (or let’s say person, or, well, in the Asch experiments and many others, man). Other cultures are more collectivistic and place a higher value on the group; Japan is a good example. In collectivistic cultures, individuals emphasize the importance of getting along, working with others, and fitting in. The group is highly valued and respected. Japan is more of a “we” culture than a “me” culture; the USA is a “me” rather than a “we” culture for sure. You can imagine that there are differences in conformity between these different cultures. This is not to say that people in collectivistic cultures don’t have their own opinions, but they may be more likely to publicly conform while still privately maintaining their own attitude/belief/perception. Collectivistic cultures may value tact more than individualistic cultures. So conformity may differ by culture and be influenced by specific cultural goals and values. Further of interest is that individuals in more diverse groups may conform less. Asch’s research with all White men in a particular time frame. People are more likely to conform when the real or imagined pressure is from people they see as similar to themselves. Diverse groups on average yield less conformity. In addition to the make up of the group, many other factors also are associated with conformity, including fear of negative evaluation, position in the social hierarachy, and numerous other factors. Obedience Flowing from work on conformity came the work of Stanley Milgram. Stanley Milgram was an American social psychologist and his work was highly controversial. He was interested in understanding why individuals would obey a destructive authority. He did a series of very controversial studies to examine this. So let me spend a few minutes telling you about Stanley Milgram’s experimental strategy (or what we call paradigm) for studying obedience. Solomon Asch Paulr [CC BY-SA 3.0] Milgram advertised for participants on a study of the “impact of punishment on learning.” The participant arrived at his lab at the university, where Milgram (a tall imposing fellow) was wearing a white lab coat over his shirt and tie. Another subject (oops, actually a confederate, who was on Milgram’s team) was also there. The two subjects drew straws to see who would be the “teacher” and who would be the “learner”—but the drawing was rigged so that the actual subject always had the “teacher” role. The teacher was then informed that he/she would be engaged in a simple word-pair memory task where the learner had to learn the pairs, and when provided the first word would then have to remember the second in the pair. The teacher was supposed to administer electric shocks of increasing intensity for wrong answers. In his original experiments, Milgram placed the learner behind a barrier where the teacher could not see the learner. As the experiment commenced, the learner was shocked with an electric current of increasing magnitude for wrong answers. If the teacher expressed reservations about the procedures, Milgram would say “you have no choice, you must continue.” The real question here is would the participants in the teacher role refuse to continue or would they go all the way to 450 volts, which was the top of Milgram’s shock machine. Now please know that no actual shocks were ever administered to the learner, but the teacher thought that they were really administering shocks. The behavior of the learner was very clearly laid out in the experimental method—at first the learner would register discomfort, then complain of increasing pain, then scream in an agonized fashion, and finally fall silent. Now, prior to the original experiments, Milgram asked psychiatrists and other professionals and college students what they thought would happen. All predicted that Milgram subjects would refuse to obey. So what did happen? In his original study fully two thirds of the subjects went all the way to 450 volts! His subjects obeyed a destructive order to willfully inflict pain on a complete stranger. One of the reasons that these experiments were so controversial, is that participants were exposed to a horrible ethical dilemma, and some found it deeply disturbing. How do you think you would feel participating in such an experience? Indeed, experiments like the Milgram one have contributed to changes in our research ethics and oversight. If you want to learn more about Milgram, take a look at this video: Milgram Obedience Study Let’s look at some of Milgram’s later adaptations of his paradigm to look at additional questions. In this table you can see that the percentage of people who went all the way to the maximum shock varied depending on the conditions. When the experiment was moved from the university to a regular office building (a decrease in status), the percentage decreased; when the learner was in the same room as the teacher, the percentage decreased; when the teacher had to force the learner’s hands down onto a shock plate, the percentage decreased; when the experimenter left and gave instructions by phone, the percentage decreased; when the experimenter left and asked his graduate student to take over his role, the percentage decreased; importantly, when the teacher saw others in an adjacent room refusing to continue, the percentage decreased a lot; and then there were always a few who went all the way even when they had a choice (you’ve got to wonder about those people). Based on his work Milgram was able to make numerous conclusions about factors that impacted the likelihood that individuals would obey a destructive authority. I’d like you all to think about some atrocities that have occurred since that time. Let’s focus for a moment on events at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq. This is a horrible prison where Saddam Hussein took prisoners and tortured them; unfortunately, it appears our troops also did some torturing of their own. How might Milgram’s conclusions apply in that situation? Here are some conclusions: A previously established framework to obey. In Milgram’s experiments the participants had agreed to participate/cooperate with the experimental procedures. Think about how that previously established framework to obey might impact soldiers working in a prison. Remember you need to obey your commanders. That’s basic. The situation or context in which the obedience occurred. In Milgram’s experiments, participants were often familiar with scientific investigations and the experimenter wore a lab coat emphasizing his authority and expertise. In the case of Abu Ghraib prison, the individuals who are imprisoned were expected to be pretty bad folk. Gradual repetitive escalation. In the case of Milgram’s experiments, participants were not asked to start at 450 V; they started a much lower level and gradually increased over time. When you gradually increase, when is the level too much? Where do you draw the line? When dealing with the prisoners, when does setting firm limits become aggressive, become torture? Where you draw the line? Behavior/reassurance for authority. In the case of Milgram’s experiments, some participants said that they could no longer be responsible for what happened and that it was his responsibility; however, they were the one administering the shocks! The experimenter said you must go on, you must continue. This kind of pressure from an authority figure can be difficult. In the case of the Abu Ghraib prison, some soldiers said they were “just following orders.” Soldiers are required to carry out lawful orders, but not unlawful ones. Physical/psychological separation between the teacher and the learner (or the torture and the one being tortured). In the case of Milgram’s experiments, the closer the teacher and the learner were the less likely the teacher was able to escalate the shocks. Having to look at and see the humanity of the person makes it hard to continue. In the case of Abu Ghraib prison and many other sad atrocities, the dehumanization of the other person is a central feature. Would you be able to torture someone who you saw as equally human as you? If that person can be dehumanized and seen as less than a person, it’s a lot easier to torture them. So how do we reduce the likelihood that people will obey a destructive authority? Here’s what Milgram would say: Reduce the buffers between the teacher (the one doing the harming) and the learner (the one being harmed). Increase the distance of the experimenter (the destructive authority figure) and the teacher (the one who is supposed to obey). Finally, seeing others willing to put themselves out there and refuse to obey destructive authority gives other people the strength to also resist. We can probably all think of examples of this across the course of history. Helping Behavior Next let’s talk about something a bit more upbeat—helping behavior! First, and unfortunately, I’d like to tell you a sad story, so take a look at this video. cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod5_social_psychology video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. One of the things Darley and Latane pointed out was that in many situations people do help. People help in big and small ways all the time—helping an elderly person who was having trouble crossing a street, giving money to a stranger who was in desperate need—the list goes on! If you want to feel better about humanity, see this story about acts of kindness. Bystanders are those people who observe a situation where help is needed. Do they help or not? What Latane and Darley were really interested in are the factors that contribute to bystanders helping and not helping. What are some factors that make it more likely someone will help? Here are a few: Factors that contribute to helping behavior “Feel good, do good” effect. Let’s say something positive just happened in your life, for example you got a promotion at work that day. If you’re walking home through Central Park and you see someone who’s just fallen down, you might be more likely to help than you would if you hadn’t gotten that promotion. You feel good and you’re going to do good. Feeling guilty. On the other hand, feeling something not so fun like guilt can spur us to help others. Seeing others who are willing to help. Maybe this is partly that informational social influence. We see others stepping up to help and this lets us know that help really is needed. It could also be normative social influence—we don’t want others to think we are uncaring! Perceptions of deserving help. Sometimes homeless people aren’t perceived as deserving help—some people think they created their own situation; I don’t agree. People are much more likely to give money to help someone who they think is deserving. Knowing how to help. EMTs are more likely to volunteer in a medical situation on the street than those of us who know nothing about emergency medicine! A personalized relationship. Now, of course, you’d help your own mother (at least I do hope so)! But you’d also be more likely to help someone you smiled at a minute or two earlier as you passed in the park than someone you hadn’t smiled at. Even a small personal connection can make us more likely to help. So we know some factors that increase helping. What factors decrease helping?? Here are some: We’ve talked about helping behavior, how it can be increased and decreased. Let’s move to another topic—What are some other ways that the presence of others can influence individual behavior? Factors that decrease helping behavior Other people! The bystander effect is the fact that the more people there are present, the less anyone in particular will help! Seems counterintuitive, but it is real. A few factors may be at play here: Diffusion of responsibility—the responsibility for helping is divided by the number of people who observe it, and if there are many people observing, any one person has a very small piece of the overall responsibility pie. Also, we don’t want to look silly (normative social influence) and we want to make sure we are behaving correctly (informational social influence). Being in a big city (plenty of evidence) or very small town (less evidence, but some). Unclear, ambiguous situations. People often note a lack of interest in becoming involved in spousal abuse situations. It’s not clear that one’s help is wanted. High personal costs. Let’s say you think getting involved will take a lot of time or money—maybe you just look away. So, let’s move on to a more cheerful topic—Well, maybe. What are some other ways that the presence of others can influence individual behavior? Other Factors Influencing Individual Behavior Social Loafing Have you ever noticed that folks seem to work less hard on a group project than an individual one? This is called social loafing; it is particularly strong when the project is one where individual contributions cannot be distinguished. However, social loafing can be reduced when: The members of the group are people we know well. We tend not to loaf then! We highly value the group. My sons work hard with their church youth group!! The task is meaningful. Folks who volunteer for Habitat for Humanity are building a home for a needy person—they work hard on that task! Social Facilitation Sometimes the presence of other people can enhance individual performance. The sprinter may get a personal record on the day of the meet—faster in front of the crowd than when in practice. However, this facilitation only happens on simple tasks (e.g., if I asked you to count by 2s—a very easy task—in front of your peers) or on very well-rehearsed tasks. If you are doing a very complex or not well-rehearsed task in front of others, anxiety is likely to LOWER your performance—think of young children’s music performances. Deindividuation When individuals are part of a larger group and they feel anonymous, they may engage in more irresponsible or antisocial acts. Inhibitions are reduced and the individual is spurred on by others. For example, individuals may engage in violent behavior in a crowd. Or, think Halloween night when, traditionally, youth come together in costumes and engage in antisocial pranks. Increasing self-awareness can reduce deindividuation. So, we’ve finished our tour of social psychology! There is so much more to learn about the individual in context! Enjoy! Review and Reflect Module 6 This is a single, concatenated file, suitable for printing or saving as a PDF for offline viewing. Please note that some animations or images may not work. Module 6: Individual Differences: Personality and Psychopathology Monday, June 17 – Sunday, June 23 Required Reading/Viewing: Principles of Psychology, Chapters 12 and 13 (Pages 502-516; 521-538; 549-563; 568-572) Module 6 online content Discussions: Module 6 Discussion Initial responses due Thursday, June 20, 9:00 AM ET Two peer response due Sunday, June 23, 9:00 AM ET Leader response due Tuesday, June 25, 9:00 AM ET Assignments: None Assessments: None Live Classrooms: Monday, June 17, 7:30–9:00 PM ET Activity: Complete Module 6 Review and Reflect, due Monday, June 24, 11:59 PM ET Welcome to Module 6 cas_ps101_19_su2_mtompson_mod6 video cannot be displayed here. Videos cannot be played from Printable Lectures. Please view media in the module. Learning Objectives Describe the epidemiology of mental health disorders, including overall prevalence of disorders, the most common disorders, and overall differences between men and women. List symptoms of schizophrenia. List symptoms of depression. List symptoms of mania. Describe the vulnerability-stress model and give examples of particularly important types of stressors for depression. List three providers of mental health services and the differences in their training. Describe three major approaches to the treatment of mental health disorders. Compare and contrast the legal notions of “competence” and “insanity.” Abnormal Psychology Defining Mental Disorders In this area of psychology, we are interested in understanding how mental disorders display themselves, how they emerge, what factors determine them, and how to best treat them. A psychological disorder, or mental disorder, is a pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that either (a) impairs one’s ability to function in important areas of life AND/OR (b) causes significant distress. I want you to remember this definition. One can be “odd” and certainly not have a mental disorder. It needs to be a pattern of behavior, and it needs to involve impairment in functioning or significant distress (or both). cover of the DSM book The DSM-5 is the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a book published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that lists current diagnoses of psychological disorders and describes them. It’s helpful in that it provides a common language to help professionals communicate and provides guidelines for making diagnoses. It helps convey information between professionals and it helps us study mental disorders by operationalizing them for research. Epidemiology of Mental Disorders So how common are mental disorders? Well, there’ve been a number of large epidemiologic studies. An epidemiologic study investigates how prevalent (how common) a problem is in a particular population or society and what some of the risk factors might be (at a population level). There are many large epidemiological studies to examine heart disease, diabetes, and many other health conditions. There have also been some large epidemiologic studies of mental disorders in a number of countries. So here are some surprising findings from those studies. First, mental disorders are quite prevalent. Approximately 50% of people will experience a mental health disorder in their lifetimes. Do you find this surprising? There’s such a range of mental health problems, substance use problems (including what we used to call addictions), depression, anxiety, and a host of others. It should be noted that available data suggest that rates of mental health disorders went UP during the COVID-19 pandemic. Please click on the image below to see clearly the extent of some mental health problems in the United States. Please click the image to view the complete infographic. Source: NAMI At least in the United States addictions are among the most common, as are depression and anxiety. Schizophrenia, which I’ll talk about more about later, is a much less common mental health problem. Second, most people with a mental health problem about 80% do not receive any treatment from a mental health professional! That’s a lot of people. So why don’t people get treatment? Well, here are some reasons: Many people may recover on their own without help. They may not be seriously debilitated and they will get better over time. After all, if you think about a lot of illnesses, how often do you not seek treatment and just “wait it out”? Many of us have had “flu-like symptoms” and not gone to the doctor; we then got better over time. This can be true of mental health disorders too (at least more mild forms). Maybe you also seek help from people in your life who can provide support, guidance, and input, and these all help in your recovery. On the other hand, we know that many mental health disorders can be chronic, and people may need help even though they don’t seek it out. One reason they don’t seek it out may be because of a “pull yourself up by your bootstraps” attitude, which is particularly prevalent in America. The idea here is that you need to “tough it out,” just fix it yourself, or “get over it.” Sadly, this attitude leads people to suffer in silence and keeps people from reaching out for help that could lead them to recover more quickly. Stigma can also be a really big problem. Mental health problems are often perceived as a personal flaw or sign of weakness, and people may be ashamed to seek help for their problems. There’s a lot of stigma in our society. Some years ago research was done to look at mental health stigma and television programming. Interestingly, evaluating prime time television programs yielded two types of characters who have mental health problems and frequently show up in storylines. The first is the helpless individual (e.g., think about the homeless woman who gets murdered early in an episode of Law & Order). The second, and perhaps more problematic, character is the dangerous mentally ill murderer (think of many old movies). These are pretty negative stereotypes that don’t really encourage people to acknowledge their mental health challenges and seek help! Nor are these stereotypes accurate! Unfortunately, these stereotypes can often be associated with discrimination. In recent years, laws have come on the books to forbid discrimination against people with mental health problems, and I think this is a good thing. One thing we do know is that men and women may differ in the prevalence of certain kinds of mental health problems. In general, women have higher rates of depression and anxiety, and men have higher rates of alcohol and drug problems. This is not to say that women can’t have drug and alcohol problems and that men can’t have anxiety and depression! Both certainly can have each (and possibly both), but the relative prevalence differs between men and women. Past year prevalence of any mental illness among US Adults (2017) * All other groups are non-Hispanic or Latino ** NH/OPI = Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander ***AI/AN = American Indian/Alaska Native Source: NAMI So let’s talk about some specific mental health problems. Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is often what people think about when they think of mental illness. Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness in which individuals experience a number of symptoms. Let’s talk about some of those symptoms. Symptoms of schizophrenia are generally divided into two categories: positive symptoms and negative symptoms. Positive Symptoms What are positive symptoms? By positive symptoms we don’t mean good symptoms, rather positive symptoms are excesses or additions to normal experience. Hallucinations are odd perceptual experiences. Hallucinations can occur in many of our perceptual systems. In visual hallucinations, people see things that aren’t really there. They may have visions. I used to work with children who had schizophrenia, which is a very rare condition in childhood. Some of these children would complain of images in their environment, the presence of people who weren’t there, and other odd visions. In olfactory hallucinations, people smell things that aren’t there, including odd odors. Now usually these odors are not pleasant, like roses; they’re more likely to be awful things, like feces. One of the things we’ve learned about olfactory hallucinations is that they may be signs of a brain tumor. So, if someone came into the emergency room with olfactory hallucinations, it might be best for the doctors to give them a brain scan to make sure they didn’t have a brain tumor. In tactile hallucinations, people often feel like there is something crawling on their skin or touching them in some way. Tactile hallucinations have been known to occur in people who are using a lot of amphetamines. So maybe they’re taking speed to get high and they begin to experience these tactile hallucinations, reporting that they have the sensation that insects are crawling on their skin. In auditory hallucinations, people hear things that aren’t there. They may hear people talking to them or about them; they may hear noises or conversations that don’t exist. Auditory hallucinations are the most common type of hallucinations in schizophrenia. I can remember many patients I saw over the years. I remember one who startled me in the middle of our conversation when he turned around and screamed, “Shut up, Mary!” at something behind him. Clearly he was hearing a very bothersome voice (auditory hallucination), which he was then able to describe to me. Delusions are false beliefs. I used to work at a Veterans Administration hospital and interview people with schizophrenia. I also traveled all over Los Angeles when I was completing my doctoral dissertation research, and I interviewed many individuals with schizophrenia about their experiences. I was particularly interested in understanding their relationships with their family members, as I’m a person who is interested in how families cope with mental illness. I heard individuals with schizophrenia describe some pretty interesting delusions. I remember one man who believed that he was the only one of the world who could impregnate women. He believed that everyone was jealous of him because of this ability. So he was also paranoid about other people’s intentions, thinking they were out to harm him. I remember another man who wore a hat on his head and lined it with aluminum foil because he believed that aliens were trying to change his thoughts using radio waves. The aluminum foil was meant to keep the radio waves out of his head. I remember another man who I saw in therapy who believed that his thoughts were broadcast to other people around him and they could hear what he was thinking. He was very concerned that they heard his negative thoughts about others, and he felt a great deal of shame. Thought disorder. Individuals with schizophrenia may have difficulties thinking, and their communications may be severely disorganized. At its worst we refer to this as word salad—where words are just thrown around in a random way that make it impossible for the listener to understand what the individual is communicating. I remember times when I would interview a patient for an hour, walk out of the session, and ask myself, “What’s wrong with me today? I just can’t seem to understand what’s going on.” What was really going on is that I had just spent an hour trying to understand a very thought-disordered patient. Disorganized behavior. Individuals with schizophrenia may behave in ways that appear bizarre to many of us. They may put objects in odd places and engage in repetitive nonsensical behavior. I remember a mentally ill man on the street who had fashioned a very bizarre-looking hat out of a trash can top and was walking along attracting quite a bit of attention from passersby. The positive symptoms of schizophrenia are also what we refer to as psychosis. Psychosis does not only occur among individuals with schizophrenia but can be evident in a number of other disorders. So if someone shows up in the emergency room with these positive symptoms, an ER psychiatrist may have a number of questions. First, is the person using drugs that result in these symptoms? By doing a toxicology screen (from blood and/or urine), the physician can determine if drugs might be the cause. An individual who has been using a lot of amphetamines or cocaine, among other drugs, may show many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Second, the person may be having psychotic symptoms as a result of bipolar disorder or severe depression, and we will talk about these a bit later. By conducting an in-depth history of the psychotic and other symptoms, when they began to show themselves, and how the problems began to emerge, a psychiatrist or ER physician may be able to determine if there is another mental health problem that might explain these symptoms. Third, these positive symptoms could be a result of another type of neurological problem. For example, untreated syphilis can lead to brain deterioration with symptoms that look a lot like psychosis. Diagnosis can be tricky!! I particularly like the painting below. It was done by someone with the experience of psychosis. It uses all sorts of wonderful colors, but also notice all the eyes. It really has a disturbing and paranoid sort of feel, doesn’t it? Songs of Schizophrenia xalinea Negative Symptoms What are negative symptoms? By negative symptoms we don’t mean bad symptoms (although, in honesty, most of these are not good for the individual dealing with them!); what we mean is an absence of typical or normal behavior. Some examples of negative symptoms include: Flat affect. By affect we mean emotional expression. In flat affect an individual lacks the normal range of emotional expressiveness, and their response may appear "off." For example, an individual with flat affect may appear to have little emotional reaction when discussing something very painful. This is not to say that they do not feel normal emotions but rather that they lack the ability to convey these in their expressions. Alogia. This refers to a “poverty of speech”; the individual may talk very little or talk for some time but say very little. Avolition. Individuals with schizophrenia may have difficulty initiating and persisting in activities and show little motivation. They may sit for hours doing very little. They may show very poor self-care, including lack of bathing and changing clothes. In order for schizophrenia to be diagnosed the symptoms have to be present for at least six months (unless adequately treated earlier). So the very diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia include the assumption that it is rather chronic as an illness. I’d like you to take a look at this video and see what you notice in terms of the positive symptoms and the negative symptoms in this gentleman. schizophrenia symptoms video coverPlease click on the image to go directly to the Annenberg website to view this video. Source: Annenberg Learner Epidemiology of Schizophrenia How common is schizophrenia? Large-scale epidemiologic studies suggest that approximately 1% of the world’s population meets the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia. So while somewhat rarer than other mental disorders, a large number of people worldwide are impacted by this disorder (over 3.2 million in the United States). It is slightly more common in men than in women. Interestingly, rates of this disorder vary somewhat between countries, but schizophrenia is seen in all cultures. I think this speaks to some profound biological underlying causes. What is the course of schizophrenia? Onset is when the illness first begins, and course is what happens over time to these symptoms in the life of someone living with schizophrenia. First, schizophrenia typically tends to emerge, or has its onset, in the late teens or early adult years. It can have a much earlier onset. In fact, as I noted above, one of the research studies that I worked on as a graduate student was to conduct follow-up interviews of children who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia prior to age 11. This childhood onset-type of schizophrenia is exceedingly rare. It can also show up in a person's 20's or 30's. Second, once diagnosed, schizophrenia tends to be rather chronic. The goal of treatment is to reduce psychotic symptoms; improve the individual’s engagement in life and his/her functioning in social, occupational, and other domains; and help him/her avoid further psychotic periods. In general, people who work to help individuals living with schizophrenia talk about the 1/3 - 1/3 - 1/3 rule—that’s the idea that approximately one third of those diagnosed with schizophrenia will mostly recover, another one third will improve but have some chronic symptoms, and one third tend not to recover much of their previous functioning. One observation, though, has been that many people with schizophrenia do tend to improve as they enter the later parts of their lives. The psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia tend to “burn out.” You might find it interesting to step yourself through this epidemiology and risk factors quiz about schizophrenia. You'll need to click on the image to go to the site (don't worry, the answers to the questions follow each question.) by Brian Miller, MD, PhD, MPH, Modern Medicine Network Deinstitutionalization woman walking inside brain mazeDeinstitutionalization, Its Causes, Effects, Pros and Cons One societal factor that has very profoundly influenced the lives of people living with schizophrenia is deinstitutionalization. Deinstitutionalization is the movement to shift people from living in long-term mental hospitals to living in communities. This process began in the 1960s. The idea here was a noble one—to provide care within communities to those living with mental illness. By establishing community mental health centers and “sheltered workshop” employment opportunities, the government could help produce more humane living conditions for those with mental illness and reduce the burden of cost associated with these long-term mental hospitals. Believe me, these long-term hospitals were pretty bleak and depressing places! Unfortunately, during the Reagan administration the federal government support for these community-based programs was reduced and block grants were made to states to administer these programs. These programs were subsequently highly underfunded, leading to a real shortage of mental health treatment in community settings. So what’s been the result of this? First, the largest provider of treatment in this country is the penal system. Jails and prisons provide more mental health care than any other setting. Unfortunately, this doesn’t work so well. Individuals often go to jail (maybe due to bizarre behavior in public, trespassing due to homelessness, etc.), are finally able to get some medication (minimal treatment) for their mental health disorders, and are then unable to continue this treatment after getting out of jail. So this leads to inconsistent treatment for many of the most vulnerable individuals with mental illness. In addition, jail is a seriously stressful place to spend time, and this stress can make mental health problems much worse. Second, there are few resources in communities to assist people with mental health problems to get adequate treatment. The states were unable to provide adequate resources through block grants and those grants ended. Even people who are very interested in seeking treatment cannot always get it. Opportunities for job training are really limited as well. Third, there has been an increase in the number of homeless mentally ill individuals living on our streets in America. If you go to places like New York City’s Port Authority Bus Terminal, or to our own South Station you will see many homeless individuals who are suffering from mental health disorders, schizophrenia chief among them, who are begging on the streets. I’d like to think that as a society we could do better for some of our most vulnerable citizens! Factors Contributing to Schizophrenia What might be the causes of schizophrenia? Well, it’s not generally helpful to talk about the “cause” because it’s likely that many things contribute to the development and maintenance of schizophrenia. I’d rather focus on “contributing factors.” Let’s go through some of these. Vulnerability-Stress Disorders Schizophrenia is one of a number of disorders that we refer to as vulnerability-stress disorders. In a vulnerability-stress disorder, an individual has a “vulnerability” that is likely biological in nature. As an example of another type of medical condition that is a vulnerability-stress disorder, think about heart disease. Individuals with heart disease have a vulnerability to acquire plaque in their arteries, and this plaque restricts blood flow and increases pressure on the heart’s pumping capacity. This vulnerability to form plaque may be genetic. However, even if you have a vulnerability, you may not show the disorder unless you are exposed to certain types of stress. Stress that contributes to heart disease includes smoking, ingestion of high cholesterol foods, physical inactivity, and overeating. Vulnerability + Stress = disorder (heart disease). One of the ways that we treat vulnerability-stress disorders is to use medication to treat the vulnerability, and psychological interventions (therapy) to improve the stress piece. In heart disease, doctors may prescribe statin medications to reduce cholesterol (vulnerability) and dietary changes and exercise to reduce biological stress. deptiction of the Stress-vulnerability model Source: Pachani, N. (2015). Stronger connections: Family stress, violence, and mental health. International Journal on Women Empowerment, 1, 45–47. DOI: 10.29052/2413-4252.v1.i1.2015.45-47. So, what might be some of the contributing vulnerability and stress factors in schizophrenia? Genetics A number of methods have been developed over the years to study the role of genetics in mental health (and other) disorders. I will first describe how we do these studies and then tell you about the results for schizophrenia. One way to study genetics and mental health disorders is to see whether it runs in families—family history studies. Compared to individuals without schizophrenia, do individuals who are diagnosed with schizophrenia have more family members diagnosed with schizophrenia? The answer seems to be yes. However, just because something runs in families doesn’t mean it’s genetic. Families also transmit ways of coping, traditions, health habits, and many other things. A second way to study genetics and mental health disorders is to look at adoption studies. For example, if an individual’s biological mother has schizophrenia but that individual is raised by an adoptive family without a history of schizophrenia, will that individual still be at higher risk for the development of schizophrenia? In general the answer seems to be a qualified yes. A third way to study genetics and mental health disorders is to use twin studies. There are two types of twins. Monozygotic twins, also known as identical twins, form when the initial fertilized egg splits into two, forming two perfectly identical individuals. Monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes; they are always the same biological sex. Dizygotic twins, also known as fraternal twins, form from two different sets of eggs and sperm that happened to be fertilized at the same time and share the womb. Dizygotic twins share about 50% of their genes; they can be the same sex or opposite sexes. Indeed, dizygotic twins share no more genetic material than do regular siblings. So, if a trait (like a mental illness) is genetically determined, monozygotic twins should be more likely to share this trait than should dizygotic twins. We call this concordance—when one twin has it and the other one does as well. The concordance rate is the percentage of twin pairs that shares the trait. In schizophrenia, if one sibling in a monozygotic twin pair has schizophrenia, the likelihood the other one has it is about 46% (that’s the concordance rate). However, if one sibling in a dizygotic twin pair has schizophrenia, the likelihood the other will have it is about 14%. This is strong evidence that genetics contribute to the vulnerability to schizophrenia. On the other hand, it also clearly illustrates that schizophrenia is not 100% genetically determined. If that was the case, then the concordance rate for monozygotic twins would be 100%! It is far from 100%, at only 46%. So we know that genetics may play a role but it certainly isn’t the only factor involved. Abnormal Brain Chemistry colored picture of brain Source: Schizophrenia.com One of the leading theories about the causes of schizophrenia is known as the dopamine hypothesis. This hypothesis is that excesses in the activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain may be responsible for many of the symptoms of schizophrenia. What is the evidence for this hypothesis? First, drugs that increase dopamine activity in the brain, including cocaine and amphetamines, can produce the symptoms that we see in schizophrenia. Second, antipsychotic drugs that are used to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia are typically ones that reduce or block dopamine in the brain. However, several of the new drugs used to treat schizophrenia do not directly affect dopamine, calling into question some of the assumptions of the dopamine hypothesis. There are so many neurotransmitter systems in the brain that work together, and indeed, there are many subtypes of the dopamine receptor! Understanding the neurochemistry of schizophrenia is a big job. Environmental Factors There is certainly evidence that early environmental factors may shape the vulnerability to schizophrenia. Here are two that might be really important: Forceps Problems during delivery of the baby may increase risk of schizophrenia. One birth complication is the use of forceps. Forceps were used to grip the baby’s head and help slide him or her from the birth canal. A forceps delivery could leave bruises on the child’s head. Remember that in this period of development, the skull is very soft and the brain very vulnerable. Forceps delivery may have led to lasting and subtle neural damage and vulnerability. Forceps are used far less frequently now than they once were. Another really fascinating theory is that schizophrenia may be caused by prenatal exposure to influenza. Several large studies have been done, primarily in the Nordic countries. Why is this? Because these countries typically have socialized medicine and have very good records of health across the lifespan. By looking at these records, researchers were able to identify that individuals with schizophrenia were more typically born during the winter and spring, when influenza is far more common. Deeper research revealed that children whose mothers had influenza during the second trimester of the pregnancy were more likely to develop schizophrenia than those whose mothers did not. This suggests that exposure to influenza may have shaped vulnerability (somewhere in the brain) to develop schizophrenia. What’s interesting to me is that this vulnerability is typically “silent” until symptoms emerge late in adolescence or early in adulthood. You might wonder why the symptoms tend not to emerge until that time, particularly if the vulnerability is already in place. You may remember from our discussion of biology and behavior that during adolescence many synaptic connections are “pruned away.” During childhood you have many ways of doing a task, but by adolescence you become increasingly specialized in how your brain works. While this makes your brain faster and more efficient, it also means that you are less able to recover from injury and less able to compensate when things go wrong. Perhaps the vulnerability to schizophrenia is always there, but it is only “uncovered” during this process of pruning. Stressors Stressful life events may play a role in the emergence of schizophrenia, and they certainly play a role in exacerbating symptoms over time. You can see how being a homeless person with schizophrenia is particularly bad, given a lack of consistent access to medical care for the mental health condition and an excess of stressful life circumstances. Recreational drug use may play a particular role as a stressor in schizophrenia. Stimulant drugs (cocaine, amphetamines) and hallucinogens (PCP, marijuana) may be particularly problematic for people with schizophrenia. Family conflict and high levels of family member criticism are also a stressor for some people with schizophrenia. I think it’s important to note that most family members are unprepared to know how to manage schizophrenia, and mental health professionals should include them in a comprehensive treatment plan, as they are often left trying to navigate a very complicated mental health system and figure out how to respond to some pretty confusing symptoms. Families can be one of the greatest sources of support and solace to their family member living with schizophrenia, but they also need help and support to do this. Mental health professionals can also help families learn to communicate with their mentally ill relatives in supportive and helpful ways. Reprise: Vulnerability-Stress Model Let’s think back for minute to the vulnerability-stress model. If we want to effectively treat individuals with schizophrenia, our best bet is to try to address both vulnerability and stress. Using psychiatric medications, we can treat the vulnerability. Using therapy to enhance coping among individuals with schizophrenia and their family members, using job training to increase skills, and helping individuals and families access social support, we can help reduce the stress. The idea here is to treat the vulnerability AND the stress. So let’s move on to a different set of disorders. Mood Disorders In the DSM-5, mood disorders involve major disruptions in mood, thoughts, and behavior. These include both unipolar depression and bipolar disorder. I’m going to spend a bit of time talking about each. What is a Mood Disorder? Unipolar Depression Unipolar depression is one of the most common forms of mental health problems out there. We call it unipolar, because there is only one “pole” of mood and that is low mood (depression). In a moment I will contrast this with bipolar disorder where there are low mood periods but also periods of heightened mood. most common types despression in America Source: Healthline The most common type of unipolar depression is what we call major depressive disorder. Now, as you hear some of the symptoms, you may think to yourself, “I’ve had that.” Perhaps you have, as, I noted before, it’s pretty common. However, most of us have experienced at least some of these symptoms some of the time. The difference in major depressive disorder is that the symptoms are more intense, last longer, and are associated with greater disruption in one’s life. Emotional symptoms. Major depressive disorder includes low mood, persistent sadness, and a lack of pleasure. We refer to this lack of pleasure as anhedonia, and it can be a severe symptom. Many people with anhedonia report being unable to enjoy most normal activities, like a good movie, an interesting conversation, or a tasty meal. Behavioral symptoms. Individuals with major depressive disorder tend to withdraw from many activities that they once found pleasurable and to express much less interest. They may have a downcast expression and frequently criticize themselves in interacting with others. Cognitive symptoms. Individuals with major depressive disorder will often report difficulty thinking and concentrating (cognitive impairment), and their thoughts about themselves, the world, and the future may be quite negative. They may believe that they're worthless and may feel excessively guilty about many things they both have and haven’t done. In its very severe forms, major depressive disorder includes psychotic symptoms (e.g., delusions that one is evil, hearing voices talking about one’s worthlessness). Most worrying for those of us who are mental health professionals, many individuals with major depressive disorder think about suicide and some attempt suicide (approximately 10%). Physical symptoms. Individuals with major depressive disorder often have trouble sleeping. Many experience initial insomnia—that is a difficulty in falling asleep at night. Inidividuals with initial insomnia will report that they lie awake in bed for hours trying to fall asleep. Others experience middle insomnia, where they are up for several hours during the night unable to get back to sleep. Others experience terminal insomnia, where they awaken far earlier than they would like, and, while still exhausted, are unable to sleep and get up and start their day because they just can’t get back to sleep. Some individuals with major depressive disorder (a more unusual presentation) experience hypersomnia—sleeping much more than normal. In addition to these sleep disturbances, those with major depressive disorder often complain of severe exhaustion, fatigue, and low energy. They may also have changes in their appetite. Typically, individuals lose their appetites, their interest in food, and experience weight loss, but some (less typically) will report increased appetite and weight gain. I’d like to show you a video of a woman in a moderate major depressive episode. She describes her symptoms of depression, her physical changes (including problems with sleep and appetite), and a suicide attempt that she made several years previously. I particularly like the role of the mental health professional here, as she compassionately questions about particular symptoms. You will also note how the woman suffering from depression talks about the impact of depression on her relationships. We know that depression can profoundly and negatively impact relationships—romantic relationships, parental relationships, and many others. I invite you to take a look. University of Nottingham, Psychiatric Interviews for Teaching: Depression So, major depressive disorder is a collection of symptoms that form what we call a syndrome. Major depressive disorder is extremely costly to society due to its treatment, impact on worker absenteeism and lost productivity, and suicide-related costs; estimates for the year 2010 were for over $200 billion in costs in the United States alone. In addition, the sheer amount of human suffering is incalculable. What is the prevalence of major depressive disorder? Over 17 million people (around 7% of the adult population) in the United States had a major depressive episode in 2017. About two thirds of these individuals were estimated by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) as having severe impairment with their major depressive disorder. The age group with the highest rate of major depressive episodes was those aged 18 to 25 (around 13%). Interestingly, rates of major depressive disorder are low during childhood and approximately equal between boys and girls. Rates began to rise around the onset of puberty, and the rate for girls increases more rapidly than for boys. A recent review suggested that by the end of puberty, the rate of major depression for girls is almost three times the rate for boys, and a ratio of about 2 female:1 male persists throughout much of the rest of adult life. What are some other kinds of depressive disorders? I’m going to mention a few others: Persistent depressive disorder used to be called dysthymia. This is a kind of depression that sticks around for a long time (years) and waxes and wanes. Those with persistent depressive disorder can go through intense periods of major depression and less intense periods (often referred to as dysthymia). This kind of depression can be hard to treat and can have a major impact on people’s health, quality of life, and productivity. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a depressive disorder in which symptoms occur in women around their monthly menstrual cycles. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is a mood disorder that includes depression and irritability. People with this disorder can really have a hard time in relationships. Two other subtypes (what we call specifiers) of major depressive disorder include: Seasonal pattern. In this pattern of major depression, symptoms typically emerge in the fall and may be intense during the winter months, but improve in the spring and summer. I think we can all relate to this a little bit, as those winter months are tough. But the person with the seasonal pattern of major depression experiences these mood symptoms very intensely. We think that the reason for the seasonal pattern has to do with exposure to daylight. You don’t see a lot of the seasonal pattern near the equator (where the length of the days doesn’t differ much between winter and summer), but it is increasingly common as one heads north. In places like Alaska, Russia, and the Nordic countries, the seasonal pattern of major depression is quite common. These are areas of the world that have very short days and limited exposure to sunlight during the winter months. It turns out that one of the best treatments for the seasonal pattern of depression is light therapy. In light therapy, the person suffering from the major depressive disorder (seasonal pattern) gets up in the morning and sit in front of a lightbox (that puts out a certain intensity of light) for a period of time each day. Use of the lightbox can greatly improve the depressive symptoms of the seasonal pattern. Postpartum depression. This is a major depressive disorder occurring during the pregnancy and postpartum periods that can have a profound effect on a new mother’s ability to parent her infant; this has become a problem that is increasingly a focus of attention for obstetricians and pediatricians. Getting treatment for mothers with depression is a high priority for their own health and well-being and that of their infants. Bipolar Disorder Let’s talk about a different kind of mood disorder—bipolar disorder. Individuals with bipolar disorder experience periods of major depressive disorder, but they also experience periods of what we call mania. Here are some of the symptoms of mania: Emotional symptoms. During a mania, an individual may experience extreme euphoria (happiness), excitement, and, sometimes, irritability. Behavioral symptoms. During a mania, an individual has a high level of energy, may start many new activities, and may have many new ideas. They may seem very speeded up, walking faster, thinking very rapidly, and speaking very quickly. Individuals lack judgment and may engage in high-risk activities. Cognitive symptoms. During a mania, an individual often has heightened self-esteem, grandiose ideas, and an inability to focus or attend, as attention is highly distractible. Grandiose ideas can become delusional with the person thinking that they are very special, extraordinary, brilliant. I remember a patient in the hospital thinking he was Jesus Christ and another thinking he was the president of the United States. Physical symptoms. During a mania, an individual often sleeps little, perhaps only a few hours a night. Despite this lack of sleep, they feel highly energetic. This lack of sleep that occurs during mania (where the individual feels no need to sleep and yet has a high level of energy) should be distinguished from the lack of sleep that occurs during a major depressive episode (where the individual is desperate to sleep and chronically exhausted). Let’s take a look at someone who is experiencing a manic episode—it’s pretty dramatic. What do you notice? University of Nottingham: Psychiatric Interviews for Teaching: Mania I’ve worked a lot with families of individuals with bipolar disorder, and I can say that manias are terrifying for families. While manic, an individual may engage in reckless behavior that destroys their lives. I remember a gentleman I worked with who came out of the hospital to find that he had lost his job, lost his license to practice law, lost his wife (she left him), lost his home, and owed the IRS $25,000. Here he was, a man in his mid-40s having to move in with his parents, all as a result of his severe manic episode. His parents were very glad that he hadn’t done anything more dangerous or damaging! Individuals with bipolar disorder may cycle from mania to depression and back again. Others may have long periods of normality between episodes of mania or depression (what we call euthymic periods). Interestingly, at the beginning of a manic episode people may be very productive, feel great and get a lot done, but as the episode progresses the behavior becomes more deteriorated, less focused, increasingly damaging and pointless. The beginning of the episode is what we call hypomania, and many people with bipolar disorder wish that they could return to that hypomanic state. Types of Bipolar Disorder In bipolar I disorder individuals experiences both major depressive episodes and full manias. In bipolar II disorder an individual experiences major depressive episodes and only the hypomanias. I remember a woman I saw in therapy when I was on my internship. She had been in the hospital for nine months, having experienced a severe major depressive episode and survived three suicide attempts. She had bipolar II disorder. Although she was improved when she was discharged from the hospital, her major depressive disorder was still clearly evident and she had suicidal thoughts. I remember seeing her once when she was hypomanic and the contrast between that and her usual state was striking. I walked in the room and she announced my arrival, told me how fabulous I looked, and informed me how wonderful she felt. This hypomania lasted about two weeks. Then she was back to her more chronic depressive state. Another type of bipolar disorder is what we call cyclothymia. In cyclothymia an individual experiences mild depressed periods and hypomanias but does not have full manias or full major depressive episodes. It’s lots of ups and downs—this pattern is also very hard on relationships. Epidemiology and Course of Bipolar Disorder What is the prevalence of bipolar disorder? There have been a number of international and national studies done that estimate the rate of bipolar disorder. These indicate that approximately 1% of the U.S. population meets criteria for bipolar I disorder; and another approximately 1.5% of the US population meets criteria for bipolar II disorder. It appears that the gender distribution for bipolar disorder is approximately equal between men and women. It also appears that bipolar disorder occurs in most countries. Like schizophrenia, there is likely a strong biological component. What is the course of bipolar disorder? The first episode of mania typically occurs in the person’s early 20s. For most people (greater than 90%), bipolar disorder is recurrent. Very few people have one manic episode and never have another. Some people have long periods of time between episodes of depression and mania, while others can have what is called rapid cycling, which includes four or more episodes in a given year. The recurrent nature of bipolar disorder speaks to the need for people to get treatment. Reprise: Vulnerability-Stress Disorder (This Time for Mood Disorders) So, what causes these mood disorders? I think here the vulnerability-stress model is an important one. Here’s what we know about some of the key vulnerability factors: Genetics There is a lot of evidence to suggest that genetics play a role in mood disorders. This evidence is drawn from family, twin, and adoption studies. It is likely that people inherit a genetic predisposition (vulnerability) to develop a mood disorder, and this is particularly true for bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder definitely runs in families. I worked on a study in which we compared a family treatment to an individual treatment for people who had been discharged from the hospital following a manic episode. Part of what we did was called psychoeducation—we helped families understand the symptoms, causes, course, and treatments for bipolar disorder. During the psychoeducation we talked about how bipolar disorder runs in families, and I was amazed at how many families told us about multiple members who had a history of manic episodes. Twin studies suggest that among monozygotic twins, if one member has bipolar disorder there is a 70% likelihood the other will as well (high concordance rate); among dizygotic twins the concordance rate is 25%. These data really suggest a strong genetic component to bipolar disorder. On the other hand, while there is evidence that major depressive disorder may have some genetic roots, the data is far less compelling than in bipolar disorder. Still, genetics clearly contributes to the vulnerability for mood disorders. Neurotransmitter Systems As we consider the biology and behavior section at the beginning of the semester, we have strong reason to believe that disruptions in neurotransmitters may be involved in depression. Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin (and probably others) appear to be involved. Certainly, we have evidence that medications that change both serotonin (SSRIs—see biology section) and norepinephrine (tricyclic antidepressants) can positively impact depression. Lithium is a common treatment for bipolar disorder, and while the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness are not fully understood, it appears to reduce glutamate (another neurotransmitter) and change the balance of excitatory and inhibitory influences in the brain. So we certainly have evidence that neurotransmitter systems are involved. These are likely to be connected to the genetic influences—as genes influence the function of our neurobiological systems. A tendency for disruption of neurotransmitter systems may also be a vulnerability contributing to mood disorders. Cognitive Factors We often think of biological factors as a vulnerability, but cognitive factors can be as well. You may remember when we talked about the self-serving bias? I mentioned that it is a bias to attribute our successes (e.g., doing well on a test) to internal causes (“hey, I’m super smart!”) and our failures (e.g., failing a test) to external/situational causes (“I had a terrible night’s sleep,” “the exam wasn’t fair”). I also noted that it is turned upside down in depressive disorders—success is attributed to external causes (“I’m sure it was just an easy exam”) but failure is attributed to internal causes (“I really am not very competent,” “I’m stupid”). People at risk for depression may have a tendency to have global, stable, internal attributions for negative events. Global means it impacts everything; stable means it will always be like this; and internal means it is a part of you. For example, you end a relationship and think, “I’m just bad at relationships!” Oh no! Being bad at relationships is global (it affects all relationships), stable (you’re likely to stay that way), and it’s internal (you are the problem). Ugh! Not a healthy way to think. People with depression may also have other dysfunctional thoughts, including catastrophizing (“I got a C on this exam, so I’ll never be a successful person”). If a person has a tendency to think in these ways, he or she is more at risk for depression. So these negative thought patterns can be a cognitive vulnerability to depression. What about on the stress side? We know that life stress can contribute strongly to depression. Loss Loss (of someone you love, of career aspirations, of status, etc.) is a big stressor. Death of one’s mother by age 9 is a big stressor that increases risk for depression. Losing a parent often involves multiple losses and changes that can intensify its impact. Interpersonal Stress We also know that interpersonal stress is a BIG factor. In one study a researcher friend of mine decided to investigate whether a negative event in marriage could lead to a major depressive episode in women who had NO history of previous depression. She recruited a sample of women who had a negative marital event in the last few months (e.g., found out their spouse was having an affair, had been told he’d like to end the marriage, been physically attacked by their spouse, etc.), and she followed up with them after 6 months. Fully 38% of these women had developed a major depressive episode! woman with head in her hands We can think of negative life events as falling into two categories: Fateful or independent life events are things that just happen to you—lightning strikes, getting caught in a flood, death of a loved one; and dependent life events are stressors that you contribute to—relationship conflict, losing a job, ending a relationship. It turns out that dependent (and particularly interpersonal) stress is a big factor in depression. One model used to help understand the relationship between depression and stress is the stress-generation model. This is the idea that stress contributes to depression and symptoms of depression (like social withdrawal, irritability) contribute to more stress—like a big vicious cycle. As a therapist, the point here is not to blame depressed people but to understand how to get out of this bad cycle!! Surprisingly, perhaps, positive life events can contribute to manic episodes in bipolar disorder. You may think that positive life events are all good, but they have a downside. Many of the positive things that happen to us are very stressful—they require us to make serious adjustments to our lives! Think about going to college, getting married, having a baby—these are all good things, but they are also seriously stressful. The person with bipolar disorder may be more likely to have a manic episode following one of these positive events, particularly if it means a major change to one’s schedule. Individuals with bipolar disorder must really pay attention to maintaining regular sleep-wake cycles. What if the person with bipolar disorder gets a promotion at work and needs to do more international travel that involves changing time zones a lot? If I were this person's therapist, I would make sure we talked a lot about this as a high-risk time (for mania) and work on strategies for minimizing that risk (e.g., regular sleep times, negotiating at work for particular travel schedules). Stress is all around us! Figuring out how to navigate it, take care of oneself, limit stress, and cope with it are essential in the treatment of mood disorders. The vulnerability-stress model, although not the only model, can be an important framework for understanding many medical and psychiatric conditions. Let’s move on to treatment! Do You Remember? Test your memory by matching the terms to their definitions. Treatment Treatment Introduction ripples on surface of blue water I often have students ask me questions about therapy and other mental health treatment, so for this section I decided to organize it as a series of questions and answers! Question 1: Why Do People Seek Therapy? People seek therapy for several reasons. They have a psychological disorder and are looking for help to address it. Say, for instance, that Bob has panic attacks on a regular basis and is increasing unwilling to go places for fear of having another panic attack. He seeks out therapy to help reduce the panic attacks and get back into life. As another example, Mary has a problem with alcohol use and seeks a therapist to help her reduce or stop drinking. In both cases, these individuals are seeking help for a psychological disorder. They have difficulty in a relationship. Say Aisha and Allen are married, frequently fight, and are unsure if they want to start a family. They may seek out therapy to help them figure out how to communicate better, to improve their relationship, and to more effectively plan their future. As another example, Omar and Maria have a four-year-old daughter who is very challenging and has frequent tantrums, and they are having trouble figuring out how to parent this child. They seek therapy to help them work on parenting skills and strategies; going together helps them “get on the same page” with effective parenting. In both cases, they are seeking treatment for relationship problems. They are going through a life transition. Say Hans is just about to graduate from college and is unsure what direction he wants to take in his career; he goes to therapy to help him explore his goals, priorities, and options. As another example, Alia is a 70-year-old woman whose husband of 45 years recently passed away after a long illness; although not depressed, she is struggling with how to reorganize her life and move forward. She seeks therapy for support and to help her explore how she will cope with this enormous life change. In both cases, the individuals are going through huge life transitions. Question 2: Who Are Treatment Providers? There are several different types of treatment providers for mental health services; although this is not an exhaustive list, it includes some of the most common. I’ll tell you who they are, their training, and the typical kind of work they do. Who Provides Treatment? Clinical Psychologist—A clinical psychologist has an academic degree (PhD, PsyD, ED), has supervised clinical training, completes an internship and has to be licensed within a state to practice independently. Clinical psychologists make diagnoses, administer and interpret psychological testing, do research, and deliver psychotherapy services. I completed my PhD at UCLA where I had extensive clinical training, completed an internship at the UCLA Medical Center, and was licensed as a Health Service Provider in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Psychiatrist—A psychiatrist has a medical degree (MD, DO), including completing rotations in a number of areas of medicine during medical school, a three-year residency specifically in psychiatry, and possibly additional specialty training in a fellowship. For example, one of my favorite child psychiatrists at Boston Children’s Hospital completed his medical training at Tufts University School of Medicine, his residency in general psychiatry at the Boston VA and Tufts, and got fellowship training specifically in child psychiatry through Tufts Medical Center. The kinds of work psychiatrists do include making diagnoses, providing psychotherapy, prescribing medications and other biological treatments, and doing research. Social Worker—For people who want to directly help others, this can be a terrific degree and typically takes only two years. Social workers have a Master of Social Work (MSW) degree, complete an internship, and are licensed. They work in a variety of settings, including schools, hospitals, prisons/jails, child protective services, outpatient clinics . . . the list goes on. They often do case management, helping coordinate care for people with complex needs, and therapy, including with families. Marriage/Family Therapist and Mental Health Counselor—These roles differ from state to state. Individuals in these roles may have a Master’s degree with specialized training; they may work with families, with individuals struggling with addiction, etc. Depending on the state, they may be individually licensed or they may work under the supervision of a clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, or licensed clinical social worker (LCSW). Question 3: Who Is Involved in the Therapy Process? Typically, individuals come alone to see therapists on an outpatient basis—this is the most common therapy model. Members of a couple may meet together with a therapist. Families can also be the participants—I often do therapy with families and they come in all constellations! Families can be two participants (e.g., a mother and son, father and daughter, etc.), three (e.g., two parents and a child), or more (e.g., parents, several children, grandparents, etc.). In doing family therapy I sometimes include particular members in some, but not all, sessions. Groups of unrelated individuals can also very productively attend sessions together. There are groups for people struggling with addiction, working on parenting, recovering from loss or bereavement, confronting cancer or other medical challenge, etc. Although individuals may be very different in many ways, they share a common challenge or experience. When I was on internship, I lead (with a psychiatrist) a group for people who were living with bipolar disorder. It was very useful to participants as it allowed them a forum to hear about others’ experiences, solve common challenges, and consider how to best manage their bipolar disorder. Veterans Administration Hospitals often have groups for veterans who are living with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder resulting from combat-exposure. Those who have also been in war are able to understand the combat experience and its impact. It really helps to feel there are others who understand your experience! Question 4: What Kinds of Treatments Are There? There are many different types of treatments. The type of treatments used will depend on the assumptions made about the nature of the problem—after all, we want to help folks address their concerns. Therapists can come from a variety of theoretical perspectives about the nature of the problems and that influences what they then choose to do. Here are some perspectives: Treatment Biomedical Treatments Biomedical treatments make the assumption that biological factors are important in the problem. This does not assume that biological factors are the only factors involved, but that they are important factors all the same. We’ve talked about a number of biomedical treatment approaches throughout the semester. For example, lithium is a treatment for bipolar disorder. Although it is not exactly clear how lithium works, there is evidence that it both treats manic episodes and reduces the likelihood of manic episodes occurring in the future—a preventive effect. It also appears that lithium can reduce risk of suicide in bipolar disorder, and that’s important. As another example, antipsychotic drugs, which typically work through reducing dopamine, seemed to be effective in reducing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. As another example, antidepressant medications (tricyclic antidepressants and SSRIs) are helpful in the treatment of depression and a number of other conditions. New treatments are being developed, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation. These medications and other biological treaments all make the assumption that biological processes in the brain are disrupted in these forms of mental illness. The medications are used to change these neurological processes. Psychological Treatments Psychological treatments assume that psychological and/or environmental factors are important in the problem. There are a number of different kinds of perspectives on psychological problems, and these perspectives guide treatment. Let’s talk about several of these perspectives and how they influence the clinician's approach to treatment. Perspectives Psychoanalytic The psychoanalytic perspective makes the assumption that psychological problems are a result of internal, unconscious conflict. The goal of psychoanalytic psychotherapy is to make the unconscious conscious. That is, if a person can understand the underlying factors motivating their behavior and, through their relationship with the therapist, resolve some of these conflicts, they may be able to make different choices and live in a different kind of way in relationship to both themselves and others. Some of the strategies that psychoanalytic psychotherapists use include free association (asking patients to report whatever comes into their minds) and dream interpretation. Behavioral The behaviorists make a different set of assumptions. They assume that the source of problems is inappropriate conditioning. Their goal therefore is to extinguish undesirable behavior and to shape new, more adaptive behavior. By using what we know about classical and operant conditioning, they can use a variety of techniques to change behavior, including exposure, different reinforcement schedules, etc. Many parent training approaches use this behavioral approach to help parents develop new, more adaptive strategies as they raise their children. They may focus on helping parents reinforce the behaviors they want to see, ignore mild negative behaviors (promoting extinction of those behaviors), improve communication, and use more effective and consistent punishment strategies. Cognitive Cognitive therapists make a different set of assumptions. They assume that the way we think about the world, our expectations and our beliefs, are the source of psychological problems. For instance, the depressed person may see the world in an overly negative way, catastrophizing and focusing on only the most negative aspects of situations. Sometimes depressed people have a tendency to see themselves, the world, and the future in a negative light. As another example, people who have anxiety may tend to overestimate the threat in their environment. The goal of the cognitive therapist is to replace negative beliefs, perceptions, and assumptions with more realistic and adaptive ideas. The cognitive therapist may help their client explore and track their own thoughts and assumptions, collect information on how realistic those thoughts and assumptions are, and try out new ways of thinking. These are just a sampling of some of the strategies that therapists may use to help their clients/patients. Why Cognitive Behavior Therapy Question 5: How Successful Is Therapy? Now you may wonder how useful therapy actually is. Does it help people get better? You may be surprised at how difficult this question is to answer. How do we go about answering this question? Randomized Clinical Trial One way we do this is through what’s called a randomized clinical trial or RCT. In an RCT, participants are randomly assigned to different treatments. In the most traditional RCT, participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control group. There’s a number of reasons to include a control group. But what are we controlling for? Different kinds of control groups can answer different kinds of questions. Here are some reasons why people get better that we can control for in an RCT: Natural course of the problem. Some people just get better simply through the passage of time. As I’ve noted in class previously, most of us, even if we don’t get treatment, will recover from, say, a bad cold or the flu eventually. We call this spontaneous remission—sometimes folks just get better on their own. By including a no treatment control group we can account for the fact that some people will spontaneously remit. Expectations. Our expectations can be very powerful. Sometimes people get better just knowing that they’re getting help (or think they’re getting help). The placebo control group helps us take into account these expectations. A placebo is a “sugar pill” with no real therapeutic properties. Let’s say, for example I want to compare my newly synthesized drug (Drug X) for the treatment of panic disorder to a placebo. The question I’m answering here is: Does my new drug do a better job in controlling panic than the patient’s expectations (based on the fact that they are getting something)? If my drug is helpful, I will see that it reduces panic attacks more than the placebo. Comparative effectiveness. I can also do a different kind of RCT which answers a different kind of question. In this case I can compare my new drug to an established treatment. The question here is really, is my new drug any better than what already exists? After all, if my new treatment doesn’t do as well as the old treatment, maybe it’s not all that great. On the other hand, if it is AS GOOD as the old treatment, I then want to see if works better for certain types of patients. This is what we call comparative effectiveness. Meta-Analysis We have hundreds of randomized clinical trials that have been done examining treatments for all sorts of psychological problems. What is a researcher or clinician supposed to conclude from all of this? Let’s say I was a therapist, and I wanted to see what the best treatment was for social anxiety disorder. I did a literature search and found hundreds of studies! What am I supposed to do? How do I know what works best? Well, this is where meta-analysis comes in. Meta-analysis allows us to pool results from lots of different clinical trials (RCTs) so that we can look at trends and come to conclusions. What do meta-analyses of psychotherapy reveal? First, it looks like psychotherapy is significantly better than no treatment. I’m certainly glad to see that this is the case! Second, those who get therapy appeared to be better off than about 80% of those who don’t get therapy. Third, results are generally pretty quick with 50% improving significantly by eight weeks and 75% by six months. Fourth, the effects can be enduring. However, there’s a caveat here. Many studies only follow patients for short periods of time (less than a year), so we don’t have enough good data on how long they can have an impact. Fifth, interestingly we are seeing more and more evidence that psychotherapy can be associated with changes in brain chemistry. Changing the way we think and behave in the world can have powerful impact on the functioning of the human brain. Question 6: Is One Type of Therapy Better Than Others? You might wonder if one form of therapy is better than others. Unfortunately, some types of treatments have not undergone very much testing in randomized clinical trials, so it’s a little hard to answer this question. However, those meta-analyses that have looked at this question have found, perhaps surprisingly, that there does not appear to be a lot of difference between different forms of therapy. In fact some meta-analyses have found little or no difference! There may be a variety of reasons for this. empathy One reason is that many therapies have common treatment elements that are helpful. One common element of treatment is what we call the therapeutic relationship or therapeutic alliance. This is the idea that having a caring and trusting relationship with a therapist and being able to examine problems and concerns can be a very powerful intervention on its own; the therapeutic relationship has been shown to account for a large proportion of improvement in psychotherapy. Therapy can also provide a corrective learning experience. People in therapy learn new ways of thinking about problems, approaching the world, and coping with difficult situations. That experience can powerfully impact self-efficacy in a variety of situations. This can be true for a number of therapies. Certain characteristics of therapists predict better outcomes for clients in psychotherapy. For example, clients do better when their therapists are warm, sensitive, responsive, and caring. None of this sounds particularly surprising, does it? Sometimes a “match” between the race/ethnicity of the therapist and client can be helpful, as the therapist may be perceived by the client as more able to understand their experience, but this is certainly not always true. It is crucial that therapists are respectful of cultural differences, as this is an important predictor of how well people do in psychotherapy. Therapists should be open and respectful, carefully listen to their client’s perspective, and be able to talk about the client’s particular experiences and concerns. Client characteristics may also impact the likelihood of treatment success. Certain kinds of clients are more likely to do well in treatment. Those who are motivated, committed, and willing to try new strategies are more likely to gain from therapy. Again, not too surprising! However, sometimes clients don’t come to therapy on their own. Sometimes individuals are court-ordered to seek treatment, and this doesn’t tend to predict a very good outcome. When you’re being forced by the court to come to treatment, you’re not really coming on your own, and may be less motivated to get help. Another time when clients don’t come on their own is when their family members pressure them. I’ve worked with child and adolescent clients, and many of them are being pushed by their parents to come to therapy! They don’t really want to be there (even when the parents were right to send them!). For the therapist, the key in those situations is to really make a connection with the child (therapeutic relationship) and help them to see that they can get something they want out of therapy (e.g., getting their parents to let up, getting along better with peers, etc.). This can be kind of tricky. Characteristics of the environment may be very important in predicting treatment success. Having a supportive family improves outcomes and treatment, even if the family is never involved in the treatment itself! One can see how that could be the case. If you were getting therapy for some challenging psychological problem, and your parents encouraged and supported that choice, you can see how that would be helpful. Another predictor of doing well in therapy is having a stable living environment. We find that it’s often hard for people who are homeless to benefit from therapy. I think of this from the perspective of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It’s really hard to focus on higher goals (getting better in therapy) when one is simply trying to find food, a safe place to sleep, and protection from bad weather and other threats. Sometimes the most important thing in working with homeless people is to help them find a safe and stable living situation first; after that they can work more effectively in therapy. In the case of trauma, it is important that the individual no longer be exposed to the trauma itself. So for example, let’s say that a woman has experienced domestic violence and has symptoms of PTSD; the first thing would be to make sure she is no longer threatened with that violence, and then psychotherapy can focus on treating the symptoms of her PTSD. Specific Therapies for Specific Problems So, there’s not so much evidence that therapies differ in their impact . . . Wait a minute though . . . Is this really the right question? After all, why should one type of treatment work well for all kinds of problems? Maybe a better question is, “What type of treatment works for what type of person with what type of problem under what types of conditions with what type of therapist?” Wow!! That’s a pretty complicated question. But maybe it’s really the question we need to be asking. So let’s look at some specific treatments for specific types of problems. These are some that have shown to be helpful through research. Family Psychoeducational Treatment for Schizophrenia As I noted before, most families have no idea what to do when one of their members begins showing symptoms of schizophrenia. Why would they? This family psychoeducational treatment helps family members to understand the symptoms, risk factors, course, and treatment of schizophrenia and to develop specific skills for more effectively communicating with, solving problems with, and seeking help for their family member. There have been a large number of studies that have shown that this treatment not only leads to patients with schizophrenia having fewer symptoms but also helps reduces family stress and family members’ sense of burden from the illness. It’s a great treatment. Exposure Therapy for Phobias This goes back a long way. If you have a phobia of, say, dogs, your best bet is to get exposure therapy. You can get a psychoanalytic therapy that may help you understand how you came to have this phobia, but the real way to get rid of the phobia is exposure therapy. This treatment works well and generally very quickly. People who do exposure therapy for phobias can go through two strategies. One is a gradual exposure. What we do there is create fear hierarchy—a list of all the situations that may make one afraid and a rating of how afraid one is in each of these situations. You can see how this works in the attached fear hierarchy for a snake phobia. Now, in gradual exposure we start at the bottom of the list (the least feared items) and work toward the top. There is also something called intensive exposure, where one starts toward the top. I tend to think that most people prefer the gradual exposure approach. Think about how you would want to treat a fear that you might have—gradual or intensive exposure? I think I might tend to go for gradual exposure . . . . Example of Fear Hierarchy for Snake Phobia Feared Item Fear Rating Exposure Sounds of Hissing 3 Make/find a recording and listen to it repeatedly Hearing the word "snake" 3 Again, listen to a recording repeatedly Reading articles in the newspapers or on the internet about snake behavior 4 Find brief articles and read repeatedly Seeing worms 4 Go to a bait shop and buy some Seeing pictures of snakes 6 Go on the internet and finds tons of images Watching a movie with snakes in it 7 Watch Raiders of the Lost Ark, an old movie containing lots of snakes Seeing garden snakes 8 Go to a pet store that sells snakes Going to a reptile house at a zoo 9 Go to the zoo Holding a snake 10 Find a place that does this Treating Arachnophobia Cognitive Therapy for Depression and Anxiety This kind of treatment has been shown to work very well. We often think of it now not as cognitive therapy exclusively but what will call cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Take a look at this slide, as it illustrates a CBT model for depression. It makes the assumption that cognitive factors (e.g., negative assumptions, interpretations, etc.) and behavioral factors (e.g., irritability, self-criticism in social situations, social withdrawal) can contribute to depression. Then depression can make these cognitive and behavioral factors worse—the classic vicious cycle. Similar models examine the cognitive and behavioral factors that perpetuate anxiety. The CBT therapist intervenes at both the behavioral level and at the cognitive level. This treatment has been shown to be effective in a range of studies with a range of age groups for a wide range of depression and anxiety problems. cognitive therapy model Interpersonal Therapy for Depression You may wonder why there are so many treatments for depression. It’s because of the terrible toll depression takes on people’s lives. Well, interpersonal therapy focuses on the relationship between depressive symptoms and interpersonal stressors. By helping people focus on developing skills for dealing with and finding solutions for interpersonal problems, this model can be super helpful for people with depression. It may be that some people do better in interpersonal therapy and others better in cognitive behavioral therapy (people have different preferences for therapy). Interoceptive Exposure for Panic Disorder In panic disorder, individuals who experience panic attacks become increasingly afraid of the possibility of a panic attack occurring. Panic attacks involve a variety of symptoms, including increased heart rate, difficulty catching one’s breath, sweating palms, tingly sensations, and fear of passing out, becoming ill, or dying. A panic attack can be so terrifying that the individual heads to the emergency department. Once a person has had a panic attack, they may become more sensitive to physical sensations. For example, their heart may begin to beat faster, and they then interpret this as a sign of an impending panic attack. Of course, this makes them anxious, which makes their heart beat faster. Oh no, it all escalates until an actual panic attack occurs! Then they are all the more fearful! So part of what happens with panic attacks is that fear leads to physiological arousal, which is interpreted as a sign of a panic attack, and then it becomes a panic attack. Ugh! The point of the interoceptive exposure is to teach people about this escalation process, expose them to the physiological symptoms, and help them to recognize that these symptoms are nothing to be feared. It sounds a little bit crazy, but it works beautifully. The data is very strong for interoceptive exposure in the treatment of panic disorder. In fact, I’m proud to say that Dr. David Barlow, my colleague here at Boston University, was the person who developed this treatment! It’s pretty much the recommended treatment for people who are suffering from panic disorder. Question 7: What Are Some of the Changes in Therapy Over the Years? Psychotherapy has changed a lot over the years, and I'd like to point out several important changes. line drawing of head Source:Pixaby: Elisa Riva Technical Eclecticism What in the world does this mean? Well it means that many therapists today integrate strategies from many theoretical perspectives. For example, they may use particular techniques to help engage clients in treatment, may use other techniques to help clients understand the nature of their problems, and may use still other techniques to specifically reduce particular kinds of behavior. There’s an upside to this technical eclecticism. By using more strategies and having a broader perspective, we may be able to treat people more effectively. On the downside, it’s important to have an overall strategy for treatment and not just to go from one thing to another to another (like a bag of tricks). More Use of Medications There has been a strong increase in the number of prescriptions for psychiatric medications over the last few decades. The upside here is that many individuals who might not have sought treatment from psychologists or psychiatrists may seek treatment through their primary care doctors. The use of medications makes treatment more accessible to a larger population. The downside though is potentially a big one. The ease of prescribing medications may mean that individuals will receive prescriptions without adequate assessment of the problem and adequate follow-up. As an example, what if a woman came to a primary care doctor and said to him, “I’m feeling depressed after my husband of 50 years recently passed away”? The doctor might say, “Oh, here’s a prescription for an antidepressant.” I would argue that this approach fails to really address the needs of this woman who has just experienced a major devastating life stressor! Sometimes we really need to think about the factors that contribute to psychological problems and how we can best help patients. As another example of a downside, there has been a large increase in the number of “off-label” medications prescribed to young children. We don’t really know if these strong medications help children’s behavior, nor do we know their long-terms effects and side effects! Shorter Duration of Treatment Insurance companies and other stakeholders have pushed for shorter and shorter treatment. Your insurance company may only approve a short-term treatment for a particular type of problem. On the one hand, this can be very beneficial (the upside), as sometimes we get more done when we have less time. It’s also the case that many people don’t want a long-term treatment; they want to come in and address their problems and go on their way. However, the downside is that some problems require longer term treatment. The Biggest Recent Changes I would say that the two biggest changes in treatment for mental health problems in recent years are an increasing emphasis on evidence-based care and a move toward personalized medicine. Evidence-based care is the idea that we should only use treatments for which there is positive data about their efficacy. We need to know what works, and we should use what works. Now the upside here is that it’s correct! We shouldn’t be using treatments just because they “feel good” or sound logical, we should have evidence of their effectiveness. On the other hand, we don’t always know what works for particular problems, during particular developmental periods, and for particular individuals. Personalized medicine is the idea that we need to determine what is the right treatment for particular individuals. Much work is currently being done through the National Institute of Mental Health to try to understand how to better match treatments to particular individuals. Molecule body concept of the human DNA Legal Issues Mental Illness and the Legal System Take a look at these three pictures, in turn. Do you recognize these people? Michael McDermott Andrea Yates John Hinckley Jr. The individuals are Michael McDermott, Andrea Yates, and John Hinckley Jr. What do these folks have in common? Well, they all committed terrible crimes and they all used the defense of “not guilty by reason of insanity.” I will discuss the other two later, but I’d like to focus on John Hinckley for the moment. On March 30, 1981, John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan. He ended up wounding Reagan, a police officer, a secret service agent, and Reagan’s press secretary, James Brady. Brady was seriously wounded and remained disabled by his injuries until he died 33 years later. Indeed, James Brady and his wife Sarah Brady became major advocates for gun control and were instrumental in the passing of legislation to restrict handguns and assault weapons. (You may have heard of the “Brady Bill.”) Back to Hinckley … he was charged with 13 felonies; however, at his trial in June 1982, he was declared “not guilty by reason of insanity.” His legal team mounted an insanity defense and he won. He had a number of diagnoses over the years with schizophrenia being prominent among them. He was obsessed with the actress Jodie Foster, stalked her, and apparently tried to kill Reagan in an attempt to impress her. After the verdict, he was transferred from prison to a locked ward at Saint Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, DC. The Hinckley case lead to a backlash against the notion of the insanity defense, with some states abolishing it, including Idaho, Montana, and Utah. Many people, including editorial writers, expressed the view that the insanity defense meant that you could try to kill the president and get away with it. As a result of this public outcry, the U.S. Congress passed the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984. This act narrowed the rules for considering a defendant’s mental illness in federal criminal courts in the United States, including restricting the testimony of expert witnesses, narrowing the definition of “insanity,” placing the burden of proof on the defendant, and requiring “clear and convincing evidence.” Today we are going to review some history of the ideas of insanity in legal contexts, contrast the ideas of “insanity” and “competence,” and consider some common assumptions about the insanity defense. So let’s get started! When Is a Person Considered Legally Insane? In the insanity defense, the defendant’s lawyer argues that her client should be declared “not guilty by reason of insanity." Well, first of all, “insanity” is a legal, not a psychiatric, term. If you look through the index of the DSM-5 you will not find a diagnosis of insanity or any criteria for defining it. Psychiatrists don’t “treat” insanity. It’s only considered within a legal context. Certainly, some psychiatrists are hired to talk during a trial about the defendant’s state of mind, but they are not making a psychiatric diagnosis of “insanity.” Because it is a legal term, it varies by jurisdiction—the federal courts have one definition, and state courts may differ from both federal courts and from courts in other states. Two ideas are relevant here: Cognitive insanity is the notion that the person was insane at the time of the crime because, due to mental disorder or defect, they didn’t understand the nature of their actions and didn’t recognize that what they did was wrong. As an example, let’s say that a person was in the middle of a severe episode of schizophrenia and attacked someone who they thought was trying to kill them (even though it was absolutely not the case). At the time of the crime, due to this severe psychiatric illness, the person didn’t understand that their actions were wrong or inappropriate. Irresistible impulse is different. Irresistible impulse is the idea that a person is in such an emotional state that they are unable to control their actions. As an example, let’s say a man comes home to find his wife in bed with her lover; he is so distraught that he impulsively kills them both. You could say he had an irresistible impulse as a function of his emotional state. In most jurisdictions, cognitive insanity has to be demonstrated for a successful insanity defense; irresistible impulse will not do for an insanity defense. Over the years the insanity defense has narrowed and is primarily based on cognitive insanity. Changes to the Law The Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984, signed into law on October 12, 1984, was the first comprehensive federal legislation governing the insanity defense and the disposition of individuals suffering from a mental disease or defect who are involved in the criminal justice system. The more significant provisions: significantly modified the standard for insanity previously applied in the federal courts; placed the burden of proof on the defendant to establish the defense by clear and convincing evidence; limited the scope of expert testimony on ultimate legal issues; eliminated the defense of diminished capacity; created a special verdict of "not guilty only by reason of insanity," which triggers a commitment proceeding; and provided for federal commitment of persons who become insane after having been found guilty or while serving a federal prison sentence. ~ Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984 Some of the important aspects of insanity definitions here are that: It refers to one’s state of mind at the time of the crime. In the 1984 reforms, it specifies that it is due to “mental disease or defect.” It certainly emphasizes cognitive insanity. So How Does Insanity Differ From Competence? These are two very different legal issues! Listen to the YouTube clip below about the trial of a Michigan man. Competence refers to a defendant’s state of mind at the time they are defending themselves in a court of law. Can they understand the charges against them? Can they participate in their own defense? If a person is not competent to stand trial, they may have to wait until a time when they are competent to go before a judge or jury. Planned Parenthood Gunman Incompetent to Stand Trial Defendants must have the capacity to understand, reason, and appreciate as it relates to specific content areas. Competency to assist counsel Understanding of criminal charges Understanding of the implications of being a defendant Understanding of the adversarial nature of the proceedings Understanding of the role of defense counsel, prosecutor, judge, and jury Ability to work with attorney and relate pertinent information Decisional competency Ability to make important decisions that arise in the course of adjudication: how to plead, consider plea agreements, strategy of defense It is possible to be competent to stand trial but have been legally insane at the time of the crime. Take, for example, the hypothetical case of the individual who, due to severe mental illness, was unable to understand that what he did was wrong at the time he did it. Perhaps after the crime was committed, he was able to receive appropriate treatment and his symptoms remitted. He is now competent to stand trial but may still mount an insanity defense arguing that at the time of the crime he was legally insane. It is also possible to have been fully NOT insane at the time of the crime but be incompetent to stand trial. Let’s say someone committed an armed robbery and knew full well what they were doing and the nature of wrongfulness of this act. This person clearly could NOT mount an insanity defense! However, in the weeks after the crime was committed, they had a terrible accident and head injury, resulting in severe memory problems. This person may now be unable to understand the charges against them and are therefore incompetent to stand trial, even though they were certainly not insane at the time of the crime. So competence and insanity are very different ideas from a legal perspective. Does the Insanity Defense Allow People to “Get Away with Murder”? Some people object to the insanity defense because they believe it keeps people from being held responsible for their actions and that many people try to use it to get “off the hook” for their crimes. So what does research tell us? First of all, the insanity defense is used very rarely. An insanity defense is mounted in less than 1% of felony cases! That’s not very many. After all, with changes to the insanity defense, including the narrower definition and the need for “clear and convincing evidence” in many jurisdictions, it’s not an easy defense to mount! So, no, not a lot of folks are using it. And, that leads to the next point. Second of all, when it is used it is often not effective. Only in 25% of cases where an insanity defense is used is it successful. Most of the time, in 75% of cases, the insanity defense is not successful. So, if it is successful, does that mean the person just goes on their way? No . . . that leads to the next point. Third, often when an insanity defense is successful, the person still spends a LONG TIME in confinement. A person may be sent to a long-term hospital to address the reasons for the insanity (often, mental illness). In fact, some studies show that the length of confinement may be longer following a successful insanity plea than if the person had been found guilty and served their time in prison. Here’s a video that describes a recent case where the insanity defense was used. You can see how complicated the issues can be. side shot of Dunwoody Dunwoody Trial: The Insanity Defense By the way, Hemy Neuman lost on his insanity defense and was declared guilty of murder. What Happened to These Three Defendants? So, what happened to Michael McDermott, Andrea Yates and John Hinckley Jr.? Michael McDermott worked at Edgewater Technologies in Wakefield, MA. Angry over problems with his employer, he entered his workplace with a high capacity weapon and shot and killed seven coworkers. However, his insanity defense didn’t work out for him. He was found guilty of all seven murders, sentenced to seven consecutive life sentences, and will die in prison. Andrea Yates was severely depressed and diagnosed with “post-partum psychosis” after the birth of her fifth child. After being in the hospital she was discharged to her home and her husband was told not to leave her alone with the children. However, he did, and she drowned all five of her children in the bathtub—an absolutely horrible and tragic act. Although her defense team mounted an insanity defense, it was unsuccessful, and she was found guilty of capital murder and sentenced to life in prison. However, five years later, when it was discovered that one of the prosecution’s expert witnesses had given false testimony, she was retried and was found not guilty by reason of insanity. She has been a patient at Kerrville State Hospital in Texas since 2007. Although she has the opportunity in recent years to be reviewed for possible release, she has chosen not to do so but rather to not contest her stay in the hospital and to continue her treatment. John Hinckley’s defense team mounted an insanity defense; he won. However, he spent the next 17 years full-time at Saint Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington DC, despite having no demonstrable symptoms of his schizophrenia for years. In 1999 he began to have some visits to his parents’ home in suburban Virginia; over time the length of these visits was expanded. In 2016, he was discharged from Saint Elizabeth's to live with his elderly parents. He had significant restrictions on his activities but was released from Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital. In June 2022, after 41 years, he was granted full release. Review and Reflect For this last Review and Reflect activity, please take this time to think back to the beginning of the course and all that you have learned. Use that reflection to respond to the set of questions listed below.